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51 Cards in this Set

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Causal Flaw

1) Assumes correlation = causation (I.e. NOT A COINCIDENCE)




2) No other causes




3) Causality is not reversed



Necessary vs. Sufficient Flaw

**Confuses Necessary with Sufficient!!**




1) Assumes something required to get a result (necessary) is enough by itself (sufficient) to guarantee the result.




2) Something guaranteed to get the result (sufficient) is a requirement (necessary) of the result.

Surveys & Samples Flaw

1) Assumes survey/sample is representative of the larger population.




2) Survey/sample is relevant to the conclusion and conducted without flaws in methodology.

Comparison Flaw

1) Assumes two things/time periods are comparable in all factors.




2) What is true of part is true of the whole (or vice versa).

Percentages/Numbers Flaw

Assumes percentages or ratios are based on the same quantities.




(i.e. 20% of 10 vs. 10% of 100 --> in this case, 10% is larger!)

Absence of Evidence Flaw

1) Lack of evidence for a phenomenon is taken as proof it does not exist.


"No evidence? Your argument's wrong!" (Not necessarily! Just because there is no evidence, doesn't mean their conclusion is false! You've proven nothing!)




2) A flaw in evidence attempting to prove a phenomenon is taken as evidence it does not exist.


"Your evidence sucks! So your conclusion is wrong!" (See above. Not necessarily).



Appeals & Attacks Flaw

Appeals: Assumes something is true b/c an (often dubious) authority says so.


"Smart Amy said so, so it's right."... and Amy's 5.




Attacks: Assumes a personal characteristic is relevant to the substance of that person's argument.


"Your argument is wrong, because you're a mean person!"

Shifting Meanings Flaw

Switches the meaning of a term in the middle of an argument without acknowledging the shift.




**Ambiguous meaning (i.e. dual meaning)**




**"Fails to define...." or "is vague about..." are almost always WRONG answers.**

Circular Argument Flaw

Conclusion merely restates the premises.

SID: Solve a Problem Assumptions

1) Solution is complete & effective.




2) No other factors (i.e. bad side effects) to consider.

SID: Interpret Evidence Assumptions

1) Facts support the broad conclusion.




2) No other info needed.




3) No other possible interpretation.




4) Nothing else to consider.

SID: Disagree w/a Position Assumptions

1) Additional facts disprove the old conclusion & accredit the new.




2) The two positions are mutually exclusive.




3) There is nothing else to consider.

Things to look for in Inference Questions.

We are looking for answers that MUST BE TRUE or the author would HAVE TO AGREE & we can PROVE IT in the passage :).




Be suspicious of answers that:


1) CBT, not MBT


2) Are extreme, unless supported by strength of lang. in the passage.


3) Have unsupported value judgements.


4) Predict the future/are hypothetical.

What's the Question Type?




Keywords in Q-Stem:




...main point...


...main conclusion...


"The argument is structured to lead to which conclusion?"

Main Point.




Read for Reasoning (Conc/Prem).


Match the answer to the argument.

What's the Question Type?




Keywords in Q-Stem:




"X responds to Y by..."


"What role does this claim play..."


...technique/method/strategy of argumentation/reasoning...

Reasoning.




Read for reasoning (C/P).


Match the answer to the argument.


We prefer WEAKER language & WISHY-WASHY answers.


Remember Matchy-Matchy girl!

What's the Question Type?




Keywords in Q-Stem:




"... assumption on which the argument relies/depends..."




"...assumption required..."

Necessary Assumption.




Read for reasoning (C/P/Flaw/Assump.)




**USE THE NEGATION TEST!! :)

What's the Question Type?




Keywords in Q-Stem:




"If assumed, allows the conclusion to follow logically..."


"...allows the conclusion to be properly drawn..."

Sufficient Assumption.




Read for Reasoning (C/P/F/A).

What's the Question Type?




Keywords in Q-Stem:




...most supports...


...justifies the argument above...


...most strengthens...

Strengthen.




Read for Reasoning (CPFA)

What's the Question Type?




Keywords in Q-Stem:




... Principle, that if valid, justifies the argument...

Principle-Strengthen.




Read for reasoning (CPFA).

What's the Question Type?




Keywords in Q-Stem:




...most undermines...


...calls into question...


...casts doubt on...

Weaken.




Read for reasoning (CPFA).

What's the Question Type?




Keywords in Q-Stem:




...flaw/error in reasoning...


...most vulnerable to criticism...

Flaw.




**We prefer weaker language for Flaw answers**


Read for reasoning (CPFA).

What's the Question Type?




Keywords in Q-Stem:




...statements above, if true, support...


...must/could be true/false...

Inference.




**Supports downwards**


Reading for Information. JUST THE FACTS.


**Doesn't involve an argument, but a PASSAGE.**





What's the Question Type?




Keywords in Q-Stem:




...they are committed to disagreeing about...

Point-at-Isssue.




Reading for Information & Reasoning.



What's the Question Type?




Keywords in Q-Stem:




...puzzling statement...


...apparent contradiction...


...paradox...


...resolution/explanation...

Resolve/Explain.




Reading for Just the fact!


Find the Paradox :).



What's the Question Type?




Keywords in Q-Stem:




...most analogous to...


...similar pattern of reasoning...

Parallel.




Reading for C/P/maybe Flaw.




**DO ME LAST!! Take a long time & often difficult.**

What's the Question Type?


Keywords in Q-Stem:




...conforms...


...illustrates this principle...


...proposition...



Principle-Match.




Reading for the principle/law OR situation/scenario.


Sometimes reading for reasoning.

How do you approach RC Passages?

1) Preview the questions for passage content.


2) Annotate the text.


3) Define the Main Point of each para.


4) Note the Bottom Line of the passage. **MAP(s)**


5) Read the Q. word for word & define Q Task.


6) Go back to the passage & PROVE your answer! **GO FIND IT!**


7) Answer in your own words - write it down!


8) Use POE.

What kind of answers to we generally prefer in Reading Comprehension?!

WEAK, WISHY-WASHY answers!! :D



*Be suspicious of RC answers that say "PROVE;" they're usually extreme.


What are the five possible purposes in an RC passage?

1) Tell a story.


2) Correct the record.


3) Advocate/Defend.


4) Compare/Contrast.


5) Criticize.

What is a language shift?

When the author shifts from one topic to another. Most often occurs b/w the premises & the conclusion, but can occur b/w premises too.




It's the GAP! Bridge the gap!!




Generally denotes an ASSUMPTION!! Assumptions are the missing links! They are like unstated premises ;).

Negate the verbs!




1) are


2) helps


3) contains more than


4) will not/won't

1) are not




2) does not help (might hurt/be neutral)




3) does not contain more than (might be less than/equal to)




4) It might.

Negate the Quantity Statements!




1) sometimes (**once-always**)


2) never


3) always


4) most (**more than 1/2**)


5) none


6) some

1) Never


2) Sometimes (once-always)


3) Not always


4) Not most (could be less than/equal to half).


5) Some.


6) None.

What kind of language is preferred in Necessary Assumption questions?

Weaker language. :)



What kind of language is preferred in Sufficient Assumption questions?

Stronger language.

When do you use the Negation Test?

For Necessary Assumption questions ONLY!

Should you use SID in Necessary/Sufficient Assumption Questions?

YES!




Using SID in NA/SA questions can help highlight the kinds of possible assumptions that will be in the right answer!

In Grouping Games, what does


"Fixed Assignments" mean?

Fixed Assignments means hat we know exactly how many times each of the elements will be used.




So we make the elements *(usually the thing we have more of) the inventory.

What does a bi-directional arrow mean?




i.e. N <--> P

This is a kind of conditional clue whereby both elements are sufficient AND necessary for the outcome.

What are some good ways of distinguishing b/w different kinds of elements in a game?

Using capital letters & lower case letters.




Using subscripts, when necessary.

In RC, what does MAP(s) stand for?

Main point.




Attitude (author's tone).




Purpose.


(Tell a story; Correct the record; Advocate/Defend; Compare/Contrast; Criticize).




Structure of the passage.


(i.e. Thesis first/last? Is the thesis even explicitly stated?

In RC, how do you symbolize positive/negative tone/force?

"+" or "-" with a circle around it ;).

In RC, beware of answers that:

- are only partly right.




- are extreme (wrong tone/force)




- use recycled language from the wrong part of the passage. These are tricky!

In RC, how do you deal with difficult/complex passages?

Find the primary focus. (i.e. the controlling idea that forms the cornerstone of the author's argument).

Use the primary focus as your 
ANCHOR!! :)

Find the primary focus. (i.e. the controlling idea that forms the cornerstone of the author's argument).




Use the primary focus as your


ANCHOR!! :)

In RC/Args, how do you distinguish b/w the claims and the evidence?

Claims: statements of beliefs.


These are *ARGUABLE*




Evidence:


- examples


- analogies


- account of events/anecdotes


- experimental results


- data/statistics


- etc.


Theses are FACTS.**

In RC, when breaking down the topic & purpose of a paragraph, what are you looking for?

Does the paragraph:




1) Introduce a new sub-claim/subsidiary conclusion?


2) Explain an earlier claim?


3) Illustrate the argument with an analogy or metaphor?


4) Provide supporting evidence? (**And if so, for what claim?)

What kinds of words indicate the author's point of view/attitude?



Fortunately/Unfortunately


Thankfully/Sadly


Believe/Seems like



How do you approach "Strengthens EXCEPT" or "Does Not Strengthen" questions?

For each answer, ask yourself, "does this strengthen the argument?"




Put a Y/N by each answer choice (don't bother crossing any out).




Pick the answer that's not like the others! (4 will go one way, 1 will go the other ;)

How can you weaken a cause-and-effect relationship?

- provide alternative causes are possible


- demonstrate that it is not causation, but a mere coincidence


- show that it could have happened in reverse

How can you strengthen a cause-and-effect relationship?

- rule out another possible cause


- demonstrate that it is NOT a coincidence


- show that it COULD NOT have happened in


reverse.

What is a good game to start on, when pacing your games?

A good game will have:




A tight relationship b/w inventory & elements (i.e. 1:1 ratio).


Only 1 or 2 types of elements.


Clear & Restrictive rules.


Mostly straight-forward question tasks.

What determines the argument's scope?

The wording of the conclusion determines the argument's scope.