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60 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Cyclin D-Cdk4
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acts during middle of G1 - this is restriction point, a key decision point beyond which rest of cell cycle is normally inevitable
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cyclin E-cdk2
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acts in middle of G1
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cyclin A-cdk2
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acts during S, and also stimulates DNA replication
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cyclin B-cdk1
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acts as G2 M boundary, initiating transition to mitosis
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retinoblastoma protein
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normally inhibits cell cycle but when phosphorylated, no longer blocks restriction point, and cell progresses past G1 into S phase- catalyzed by cdk4 and cdk2
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prophase
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forming of spindle (polar microtubles, kinetochore microtubules) and condensing of chromosomes
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prometaphase
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markedby disappearance of nuclear envelope; material of envelope remains in cytoplasm to be reassembled when daughter nuclei reform; chromosomes begin to move towards poles, but movement counteracted by two factors: repulsive force from poles push chrommosomes toward middle region/equatorial plate and chromatids held together at centromere by cohesis
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metaphase
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centromeres aligned at plate of cell's equator; separation at end of metaphase occurs because cohesis hydrolyzed by protease, called separase; only works because inhibitory subunit securin becomes hydrolyzed after chromatids connected to spindle
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spindle checkpoint
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how chromosome alignment connected to chromatid spearation (since hydrolyzation of securin only occurs after chromatids connected to spindle, which then enables separase to hydrolyze cohesin). senses whether there are kinetochores unattached to spindle; if happens, securin breakdown blocked and sister chromatids stay together
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anaphase
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separation of chromatids, as new daughter chromosomes move towards poles; kinetochores, cytoplasmic dynein, have ability to hydrolyze ATP to ADP and phosphate, releasing energy to move chromsomes along microtubules toward poles = 75% of motion, 25% occurs because kinetochore microtubules shorten from poles, drawing chromosomes toward them
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telophase
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daughter chromosomes reach poles and telophase passes into next interphase as nuclear evelopes and nucleoli reform and chromatin becomes diffuse
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cytokinesis
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usually followed after mitosis, it is division of cell's cytoplasm; animal cells divide by furrowing plasma membrane, with help of actin adn myosin; in plant cells, membranous vesicles, with help from microtubules and kinesin, form new plasma membrane and contribute contents to cell plate = cell wall
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what are two things that are unique about meiosis I?
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first is that homologous chromosomes pair along their entire lengths; after metaphase 1, homologous chromosomes separate; indiivdual chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids, remain intact until end of metaphase II in second meiotic division
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functions of meiosis
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reduce chromosome from diploid to haploid, ensure genetic diversity, and make sure they have a full set of chromosomes
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aneuploidy
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condition in which one or more chromosomes are either lacking or present in excess
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what's unique about meiosis II?
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no DNA replication, has two chromatids that differ from each other with crossing over, and there is haploid number of chromosomes lining up on plate
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differentiation
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cell function and shape physically defined to cel type
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determination
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fate determined to become cell type
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totipotent
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can develop into any adult cell
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unique properties of stem cells
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can divide many times, undifferentiated, can become many diff specialized cell types
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pluripotent
multipotent |
pluripotent can differentiate into anything (found in inner cell mass of blastocyst), multipotent has to be tissue related
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two major factors that influence cleavage
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yolk- influences pattern of cell diision by impeding pinching in plasma membrane to form cleavage furrow between daughter cells
cytoplasmic determiantns stored in egg guide formation of mitotic spindles and timing of cell divisions |
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ectoderm
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nervous system and epidermis of skin
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endoderm
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inner lining of of gut and respiratory system, liver, bladder, pancreas
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mesoderm
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skeletal system, muscle and circulatory system, kidneys, gonads, blood cells
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determination determined by:
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cytoplasmic segregation and embryonic induction, where interactions with other cells causes determination
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hypothalamus
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sends tropic releasing hormones and release-inhibiting hormones (neurohormones), which control secretion of hormones of anterior pituitary, and releases oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone/vasopressin through posterior pituitary
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anterior pituitary
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tropic hormones - thyrotropin, adrenocorticotropin, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, as well as growth hormone, prolactin, melanocyte-stimulating hormone, and endorphins/enkephalins
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posterior pituitary
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oxytocin, vasopressin
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thyroid
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thryoxine (due to thyrotropin) and calcitonin
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parathyroid hormone
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protein, produced in parathyroids to resorb bone and raise blood calcium in bones
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thymosins
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acts on white blood cells (peptides) to activate immune responses of T cells in lymphatic cells, produced in thymus
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pancreas
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insulin, glucagon, somatostatin
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adrenal medulla
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epinephrine, norepinephrine
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adrenal cortex
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glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
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thyrotropin
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tropic hormone, produced in anterior pituitary, in thyroid gland it stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroxine
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adrenocorticotropin
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in adrenal cortex, stimulates release of hormones like epinephrine, noepinephrine, tropic hormone produced in anterior pituitary
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LH
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in gonads, stimulates secretion of sex hormones from ovaries, testes, tropic hormone produced in anterior pituitary
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FSH
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in gonads, tropic hormone produced in anterior pituitary that stimulates growth and maturation of eggs in females, stimulates sperm production in males
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growth hormone
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in bone, liver, muscles, stimulates protein synthesis and growth - direct hormone produced by AP (stimulates cells to take up AA for protein synthesis, also stimulates liver cells to produce somatomedins which stimulate bone/cartilage growth
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prolactin
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produced in AP, stimulates milk production in mammary glands
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melanocyte stimulating hormone
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in melanocytes it controls pigment production, produced in AP
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endorphins/enkephalins
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in spinal cord neurons, natural opiates, direct hormone produced in AP
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oxytocin
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produced in PP, targets uterus and breasts by causing milk flow and induces birth by stimulating labor contractions
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ADH/vasopressin
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in kidneys, stimulates water reabsorption and raises blood pressure, produced in PP
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thyroxine
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stimulates and maintains metabolism necessary for normal development, produced in thyroid gland, targets many tissues
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calcitonin
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in bone, stimulates bone formation and lowers blood calcium, produced in thyroid gland
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insulin
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produced in pancreas, stimulates uptake/metabolism of glucose, increase conversion of glucose to glycogen and fat
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glucagon
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in liver, stimulates breakdown of glycogen and raises blood sugar, produced in pancreas
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somatostatin
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in digestive tract and pancreas, inhibits insulin and glucagon release, decreases secretion, motility, absorption in digestive tract (after it detects that there is a rise in blood glucose level)
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epinephrine, norepinephrine
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targets heart, blood, vessels, liver, fat cells and stimulates fight or flight reactions, increase heart rate, redistribute blood to muscles and raise blood sugar, produced in adrenal medulla
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glucocorticoids (cortisol)
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produced in adrenal cortex, mediate response ot stress, reduce metabolism of glucose, increase metabolism of proteins/fats, reduce inflammation and immune response (made from cholesterol)
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mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
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targets kidneys and stimulates excretion of potassium ions and reabsorption of sodium ions
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estrogen
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in breats, uterus, other tissues importnat to stimulate development and maintenance of female characteristics and sexual behavior
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progesterone
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in uterus, sustains pregnancy, helps maintain secondary female sexual characteristics
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mammalian respiratory system : functions
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eliminate CO2, provide O2
regulate level of blood pH produce sounds help to defend body against microbes |
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tidal breathing
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lungs are dead end sacks, breathing comes in, flows out in same route
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advantages of closed circulatory systems 1
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blood flows more rapidly through vessels than through intercellular spaces, transporting nutrients and wastes to and from tissues more rapidly
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advantages of closed circulatory systems 2
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specialized cells and large molecules that aid in transport of hormones and nutrients can be kept within vessels but can drop their cargo in tissues where needed
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advantages of closed circulatory systems 3
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by changing resistance in vessels, close dsystems can be more selective in directling blood to specific tissues
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