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255 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Heterotrophs
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First form of life
Lacked ability to synthesize own nutrients, depended upon outside sources for food |
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Primitive Seas
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Contained simple inorganic and organic compounds
Salts, methane, ammonia, hydroge, water |
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Primitive Energy
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Heat, electricity, solar radiation (X-rays, Cosmic rays, Radioactivity)
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Primordial Soup
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After building blocks of sugar, amino acids, purines and pyrimidines dissolved and created macromolecules
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Stanley L. Miller
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Evidence of Organic Synthesis
Combined UV radiation, heat, methane, hydrogen, ammoniam and water to produve organic compounds such as urea, hydrogen cyanide, acetiv acid and lactic acid |
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Formation of Primitive Cells
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Coacervate droplets (clumped protein molecules surrounded by shell of water) that absorb and incorporate environment
Not living, but had some properties Unstable (mostly) |
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Nucleic Acid Polymers
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In first primitive cells, then became capable of reproduction
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Biochemical Pathways in Heterotrophs
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Allowed to use wider variety of nutrients
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Anaerobic Respiratory Processes in Heterotrophs
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Evolved to convert nutrients into energy
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Autotrophic Nutrition
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Necessary to provide required nutrients
Used photosynthetic pathways to capture solar energy and synthesize carbohydrates from Co2 and H2O Oxygen was a waste product |
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Aerobic Respiration
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Converted the atmosphere from reducing to oxidizing
Created the ozone layer to block high energy radiation |
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4 Categories of Living
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Autotrophic Anaerobes-chemosynthetic bacteria
Autotrophic Aerobes- green plants and photoplankton Heterotrophic Anaerobes-yeasts Heterotrophic Aerobes-amoebas, earthworms, humans |
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Elements of living things
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Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphorus
Protoplasm (subsuance of life)- Mg, I, Fe, Ca, minerals |
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Inorganic Compounds
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Do not contain carbon
Salts, HCL |
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Organic Compounds
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Made by living systems
Contain carbon Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids |
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Atom
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unit of an element
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Compound
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composed of atoms joined by chemical bonds
H2O, CO2, C6H12O6 |
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The Cell
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fundamental unit of all living things
every biological functions occurs within cells or at interface between cells |
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Cell Theory
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All living things are composed of cells.
the cell is the basic funational unit of life. Cells arise only from pre-existing cells. Cels carry genetic informaiton in the form of DNA. This genetic material is passed on from parent to daughter cell |
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Microscopy
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basic tool to study cells
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magnification
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increase in apparent size of an object
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resolution
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differentiation of two closely situated objects
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compound light microscope
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uses 2 lenses to magnify an object. Total magnification is the product of the eyepiece magnification and the objective magnification
Nonliving species-due to staining done for required contrast |
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diaphragm
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controls the amount of light passing through the specimen
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coarse adjustment knob
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roughly focuses image
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fine adjustment knob
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sharply focuses image
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Phase Contrast Microscopy
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light microscope that permits the study of living cells by using the contrast in the refractive index b/w cellular structures
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electron microscopy
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beam of electrons allows higher magnification than is possible with light. Nonliving specimens bc tissues must be fixed and sectioned and stained w/ solutions of heavy metals
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Centrifugation
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used to separates cells or cell mixtures without destroying them. Separate based on densities.
Nuclei, ER, and Mitochondria sink to bottom |
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Organelles
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components of the cell-specialized in structure and function
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Prokaryotes
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Bacteria
Cell wall (composed of peptidoglycans) No Nucleus (Nucleoid Region) Ribosomes (30S and 50S subunits) No membrane bound organelles |
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Eukaryotes
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Protists, fungi, plants, animals
Cell wall in plants and fungi only Nucleus Ribosomes (40S and 60S subunits) Membrane Bound organelles |
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Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
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encloses cell
selective permeability-regulates in and out Small nonpolar molecules pass easily (oxygen) small charges molecules cross through protein channels larger charged molecules cross w/ help of carrier proteins |
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Fluid Mosaic Model
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Theory that cell membrane consists of phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded. lipids and many proteins freely move throughout the membrane
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Nucleus
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controls cell activities
surrounded by nuclear membrane contains DNA which is complexed with histones to form chromosomes. The nucleolus is where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis occurs |
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Ribosome
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site of protein production
synthesized by nucleolus Free ribosomes in cytoplasm, bound ribosomes line outer membrane of E.R. |
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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network of membrane-enclosed spaces that aid with transport of materials. Esp those meant to be secreted
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Golgi Apparatus
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receives vesicles and contents from the smooth ER, modifies them, repackages them into vesicles and distributes to cell surface by exocytosis
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Mitochondria
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site of aerobic respiration, supplier of energy. Has outer and inner phospholipid bilayer
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Cytoplasm
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location of most cell metabolic activity
transport occurs by cyclosis-streaming movement w/i cell |
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Vacuole
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and vesicles-membrane-bound sac involved in transport and storage of materials that our ingested, secreted, processes, or digested by the cell. vacuoles are larger than vesicles. Vesicles are more common in plants than animals
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Centriole
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specialized microtubule involved in spindle organization during cell division. Not membrane bound. Animal cells have a pair that lie in the centrosome. Plant cells do not have
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Lysosome
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membrane bound vesicle. Contains hydrolytic enzymes involved in intracellular digestion. break down materials ingested by cell. autolysis-dying tissue ruptures lysosome membrane and releases enzymes
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Cytoskeleton
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composed of microtubules and microfilaments. Gives cell mechanical support, maintains shape, functions in cell motility
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Simple Diffusion
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Net movement of dissolved particles down their concentration gradient-higher concentration to lower concentration. Requires no energy
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Vacuole
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and vesicles are membrane-bound sacs involved in transport and storage of materials that are ingested, secreted, processed, or digested by the cell. Vacuoles are larger than vesicles are more likely in plants than animals
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Centrioles
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specialized microtubule involved in spindle organization during cell division. not bound by a membrane. animal cells have a pair that lie in the centrosome. plant cells do not have any
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Lysosome
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membrane bound vesicles with hyrolytic enzymes. break down material ingested by the cell. autolysis occurs when a dying tissue rupture lysosome membrane and releases enzymes
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Cytoskeleton
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composed of microtubules and microfilaments. Gives cell mechanical support. Maintains shape. Functions in cell motility
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simple diffusion
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net movement of dissolved particles down their concentration gradients-from higher to lower concentration. Requires no energy source
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Osmosis
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Simple diffusion of water from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration. In a cell, if the extracellular medium is hypertonic to the cytoplasm, plasmolysis occurs and the water flows out of the cell as the cell shrivels. If medium is hypotonic, cell will swell and lyse
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Passive Diffusion
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Down gradient
No carrier No energy |
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Facilitated diffusion
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Down gradient
Carrier-special channels or carrier proteins in cell membrane No energy |
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Active transport
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Against gradient
Carrier-transport proteins Energy Required |
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Circulation
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transportation of material within cells and throughout the body of a multicellular organism
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Brownian Movement
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Movement of particles due to kinetic energy which spreads small suspended particles throughout the cytoplasm of the cell
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Cytolysis or Streaming
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circular motion of cytoplasm around the cell transport molecules
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Endoplasmic Reticulum-Transportation
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provides channels throughout cytoplasm, provides direct continuous passageway from the plasma membrane to the nuclear membrane
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Extracellular Circulation
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systems to move materials throughout the body of an organism
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Diffusion
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Transport for food and oxygen from the environment to the cells if cells are in direct or close contact. in larger, more complex animals, diffusion is important to transport between cells and their interstitial fluid
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Circulatory System
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In complex animals. transport fluid through vessels and a pump to drive circulation
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Enzymes
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Catalyst. Protein. Many are conjugated proteins and have non-protein coenzyme
Lower activation energy of a reaction Increase the rate of the reaction. Does not affect overall change of free energy of the reaction Are not changes or consumed in course of reaction |
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Enzyme Specificity
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very selective
enzyme acts upon substrate when substrate binds to enzyme's active site |
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Lock and Key theory
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Spatial structure of enzyme's active site is complementary to spatial structure of substrate
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Induced Fit Theory
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Active Site has flexibility of shape. When appropriate substrate contacts, active site changes to fit the substrate
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Enzyme Reversibility
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Most reactions are reversible. The product synthesized by an enzyme can be decomposed by the same enzyme
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Enzyme Action
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depends on temperature, pH, and enzyme/substrate concentration
Temperature-rate increases as temp increases to optimum temp pH-each enzyme has optimal pH. Human-7.2, Pepsin-2, pancreatic enzymes-3 |
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Enzyme Concentration
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When substrate and enzyme are low, rate low
Substrate increase increases rate until all enzyme active sites are occupied |
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Hydrolysis
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Digest large molecules into smaller components. Lactose-->Lactase-->Glucose&Galactose
Protein-->protease-->amino acids Lipids-->Lipase-->fatty acids and glycerol |
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Synthesis
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Includes dehydrations. Reverses reaction of hydrolosis.
Required for growth, repair, regulation, protection, and production of fat and glycogen. |
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Enzyme Reversibility
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Most reactions are reversible. The product synthesized by an enzyme can be decomposed by the same enzyme
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Enzyme Action
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depends on temperature, pH, and enzyme/substrate concentration
Temperature-rate increases as temp increases to optimum temp pH-each enzyme has optimal pH. Human-7.2, Pepsin-2, pancreatic enzymes-3 |
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Enzyme Concentration
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When substrate and enzyme are low, rate low
Substrate increase increases rate until all enzyme active sites are occupied |
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Hydrolysis
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Digest large molecules into smaller components. Lactose-->Lactase-->Glucose&Galactose
Protein-->protease-->amino acids Lipids-->Lipase-->fatty acids and glycerol |
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Synthesis
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Includes dehydrations. Reverses reaction of hydrolosis.
Required for growth, repair, regulation, protection, and production of fat and glycogen. |
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Cofactors
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nonprotein molecules needed by enzyme to become active
Metal cations, coenzymes Obtained from the diet. prosthetic groups-cofactors that bind to enzyme by covalent bonds |
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Enzyme Reversibility
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Most reactions are reversible. The product synthesized by an enzyme can be decomposed by the same enzyme
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Enzyme Action
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depends on temperature, pH, and enzyme/substrate concentration
Temperature-rate increases as temp increases to optimum temp pH-each enzyme has optimal pH. Human-7.2, Pepsin-2, pancreatic enzymes-3 |
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Enzyme Concentration
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When substrate and enzyme are low, rate low
Substrate increase increases rate until all enzyme active sites are occupied |
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Hydrolysis
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Digest large molecules into smaller components. Lactose-->Lactase-->Glucose&Galactose
Protein-->protease-->amino acids Lipids-->Lipase-->fatty acids and glycerol |
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Synthesis
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Includes dehydrations. Reverses reaction of hydrolosis.
Required for growth, repair, regulation, protection, and production of fat and glycogen. |
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Photosynthesis
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converts solar energy into chemical energy of bonds in compounds like glucose
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Respiration
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conversion of chemical energy in glucose bonds into usable cellular energy
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Fuel for Cells
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Carbohydrates and Fats
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Dehydrogenation
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Oxidation Reaction that occurs during respiration when high energy hydrogen atoms are removed from organic molecules
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Electron Transport Chain
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Series of Steps to harness energy in the redox reaction of dehydrogenation and oxygen accepting final hydrogen
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Glycolysis
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First stage of glucose catabolism
Oxidative breakdown of glucose into two pyruvate molecules, produce ATP, and reduction of NAD+ to NADH Occurs in the cytoplasm |
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Glycolytic Pathway-net reaction
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Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ -->2Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H+ +2H2O
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substrate level phosphorylation
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ATP synthesis is directly coupled with the degradation of glucose without participation of an intermediate molecule like NAD+
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Fermentation
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Reduces pyruvate under anaerobic conditions
Produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule |
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Alcohol Fermentation
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Occurs in yeast and some bacteria
Pyruvate is converted to ethanol and NAD+ is regenerated |
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Lactic Acid Fermentation
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Fungi and some bacteria and human muscle cells
Pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid, NAD+ is produced |
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Cellular Respiration
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Oxidizes pyruvate in aerobic conditions
Yields 36-38 ATP Oxygen is final acceptor of electrons Occur in the mitochondrion Catalyzed by specific enzymes Decarboxylation, Krebs Cycle, Electron Transport Chain |
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Decarboxylation
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Pyruvate is transported from cytoplasm to mitochondrial matrix
Loses a CO2 and remaining acetyl group binds with coenzyme a to form acetyl CoA NAD+ is reduced to NADH |
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Citric Acid Cycle/Krebs Cycle
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acetyl groups combines with oxaloacetate to form citrates. 2 Co2 are released. 2 turns of cycle
Each turn generates 1 ATP by SLP NADH and FADH2 which transport electrons to ETC |
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Electron Transport Chain
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located on the inside of the inner mitochondiral membrane. as electrons are transferred from NADH and FADH2 free energy is released which is used to form ATP
ETC is composed of cytochromes-electron carriers with a central iron atom that undergoes a reversible redox reaction |
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Carbohydrates as Energy
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disaccharides hydrolyze into monosaccharides and converted into glucose
Ex. Glycogen in liver |
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Fats as Energy
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stored in adipose tissue in triglyceride form
hydrolyzed by lipases to fatty acids and glycerol Yield greatest number of ATP per gram--very efficient |
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Proteins as Energy
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used only when carbohydrates and fat aren't available
undergo transamination reaction-lose amino group to form an a-keto acid oxidative deamination removes ammonia molecule from amino acid-toxic in vertebrates. fish can excrete which insects and birds convert it to uric acid and mammals convert it to urea |
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Autotroph
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organism that manufatures its own organic materials from inorganic material
harness sunlight to form potential energy in form of chemical bonds (photsynthesis) chemosynthesis-bacteria use to make organic materials |
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Calvin Cycle
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CO2+RBP-->2 PGA-->(phosphorylation and reduction)-->PGAL-->RBP
6 turns: 12 PGAL from 6CO2+RBP 12 PGAL-->6 RBP and 1 glucose |
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Reproduction
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organism perpetuates itself and its species
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cell division
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process by which a cells doubles its organelles and cytoplasm, replicates DNA, and divides in 2
Form of reproduction (unicellular) or growth, development, and replacement (multicellular) |
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Mitosis
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division and distribution of the cell's DNA to 2 daughter cells
Each daughter receives complete copy of the genome 2N-->2N occurs in all dividing cells homologous chromosomes don't pair up No crossing over |
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Chromosomes
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After replication-->2 sister chromatids at centromere
During interphase-->chromatin |
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Interphase
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Majority of lifetime
Each chromosome is replicated (DNA in form of chromatin) 2 sister chromatids at centromere |
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Prophase
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chromosomes condense
centriole pairs separate and move toward opposite poles of cells Spindle apparatus forms and the nuclear membrane dissolves |
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metaphase
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chromosomes align at metaphase plate
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anaphase
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centromeres split and sister chromatids separate
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Telophase
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new nuclear membranes form
Each cell is diploid (like parent cell) |
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cytokinesis
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cytoplasm divides into two cells. cleavage furrow forms and cell pinches through
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mitosis in plant cells
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2 major differences
Plant cells lack centrioles Plant cells divide by formation of a cell plate |
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Meiosis
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sexual reproduction
produces gametes cell duplicates chromosomes before division, but produces haploid number 2N-->N occurs in sex cells only homologous chromosomes pair at metaphase plate forming tetrads crossing over can occur at metaphase I |
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Meiosis-Interphase
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Parent cell's chromosomes replicate
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First Meiotic Division
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Produces two intermediate daughter cells with N chromosomes with sister chromatids
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Prophase I
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chromatin condenses into chromosomes
synapsis-homologous chromosomes intertwine forming a tetrad crossing over occurs between homologous chromosomes-increases genetic diversity |
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Metaphase I
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tetrads align at equator and each pair attaches to spindle fiber at kinetochore
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Anaphase I
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disjunction-homologous pairs separate
distributions of homologous chromosomes to the two daughter cells is random w/ respect to parental origin |
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Telophase I
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nuclear membrane forms around new nuclei
each chromosome has sister chromatids |
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Meiosis II
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similar to mitosis except no chromosomal replication
new cells have haploid chromosome number |
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Sexual Reproduction
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two parents
results in genetically unique offspring fusion of 2 gametes(fertilization) to form a zygote zygote develops into adult |
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Gonads
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specialized organs that produce gametes
testes-male gonads, produce sperm in seminiferous tubules ovaries-female gonads, produce oocytes |
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Hermaphrodites
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both functional male and female gonads
Ex. hydra and earthworm |
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Spermatogenesis
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Sperm production
occurs in seminiferous tubules Spermatagonia (2N) undergo meiosis to produce four haploid sperm (N) of equal size Sperm have head (nucleus & paternal genome) and tail/flagellum to propel |
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Oogenesis
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occurs in the ovaries
diploid female sex cell undergoes meiosis to produce single mature egg polar body-from meiosis, contains nucleus, rapidly degenerate ovum-contains cytoplasm, RNA, organelles, and nutrients |
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Fertilization
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union of the egg and sperm nuclei to form a zygote with 2N chromosomes
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External Fertilization
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Vertebrates that reproduce in water (fish and amphibians)
Female lays eggs in water and male deposits sperm in vicinity Low chance of fertilization-must lay more eggs Flagella allow sperm to swim to eggs |
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Internal Fertilization
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Terrestrial vertebrates
Direct route for sperm to egg Increases fertilization success and females produce fewer eggs Care for young |
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Male Reproductive Physiology
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Testes-in scrotum (external) 2-4 degrees lower than body temp for sperm survival. Produce testosterone
SEVEN UP Pathway Seminiferous tubules Epididymis Vas Deferens Ejaculatory Duct Urethra Penis |
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Female Reproductive Anatomy
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ovaries-in abdominal cavity, contain thousands of follicles
follicles-layered sac of cells that contains, nourishes, and protect immature ovum oviduct-where immature ovum travels once a month from ovary uterus-each fallopian tube opens into. site of fetal development cervix-narrow end of uterus. connects to vaginal canal vaginal canal-site of sperm deposition, birth passageway all ovum present at female birth |
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Female sex hormones
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estrogens, progesterone, LH, FSH (both regulated by GnRH)
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Estrogens
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steroid hormones
for maturation stimulate reproductive development, secondary sex characteristics and sex drive thicken endometrium (uterine wall) secreted by ovarian follicles and corpus luteum |
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Progesterone
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steroid hormone
secreted by corpus luteum during luteal phase of menstrual cycle stimulates the development and maintenance of endometrial walls for implantation |
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Menstrual Cycle
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ovary hormones, hypothalamus, and anterior pituitary
Follicular Phase-begins with end of menstrual flow. FSH from ant, pituitary develops follicle, estrogen is secreted Ovulation-midway through cycle, mature ovarian follicle bursts and releases ovum. Surge in LH preceded by estrogen Luteal Phase-LH causes follicle to develop into Corpus Luteum (secretes E &P). P causes endometrium to mature and prepares for implantation Menstruation-If ovum is not fertilized, corpus luteum atrophies, endometrium sloughs off If fertilized, placenta produces hCG maintaining corpus luteum and e & P to maintain uterus |
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asexual reproduction
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production of offspring without fertilization
offspring formed by division of single parent cell genetically identical all plants |
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fission
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simple form of asexual reproduction
prokaryotic organisms DNA replicates and new plasma membrane and cell wall grow along midline one-celled organisms |
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Budding
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asexual reproduction
replication of nucleus followed by unequal cytokinesis cell membrane pinches in to form a new cell that will grow hydra and yeast |
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Regeneration
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regrowth of lost or injured body part
mitosis hydra and starfish |
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Parthenogenesis
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development of unfertilized egg into adult organism
bees and ants |
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Plant Sexual Reproduction
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alternation of sporophyte and gametophyte generation
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Cycle of Plant Sexual Reproduction
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Sporophyte (2N) -->Spore (N) -->Gametophyte (N) --> Gametes (N)-->Fertilization-->Sporophyte (2N)
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Genetics
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study of inherited traits
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gene
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basic unit of heredity
composed of DNA located on chromosomes |
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alleles
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alternative forms of genes
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genotype
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genetic makeup of individual
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phenotype
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physical manifestation of genetic makeup
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Gregor Mendel
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Pea Plants
Basic Principles of Genetics Performed crosses |
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1st Law of Genetics
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Law of Segregation
genes exist in alleles (alt. forms) each org has 2 alleles segregation during meiosis=>each gamete has 1 allele |
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Mendel's Law of Dominance
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If two alleles are different, 1 will be dominant and one will be recessive
Homozygous-2 copies of same allele Heterozygous-2 different alleles |
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Monohybrid Cross
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Illustrate Mendelian inheritance
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Punnett Square
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way to predict expected genotypes
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Testcross
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Dominant org. of unknown genotype crossed with homozygous recessive org to i.d. the unknown genotype
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2nd Law of Genetics
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Law of Independent Assortment
alleles go into gametes independently unless they are linked genes |
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Incomplete Dominance
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color blend in heterozygous genotype
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Codominance
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multiple alleles exist for gene and more than one is dominant
both expressed blood type |
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autosomes
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22 chromosomes
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sex chromosomes
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1 pair
females-homologous x males-heterologous yx gender determined by contribution of male gamete (sperm) |
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sex-linked
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genes on x or y chromosome
most are on x recessive genes masked in females (usually) but more common for men hemophilia, color-blind |
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Drosophila Melanogaster
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Useful for research bc:
short life cycle large reproductive numbers chromosomes are large and easily recognized few chromosomes frequent mutations |
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Nondisjunction
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failure of homologous chromosomes so separate properly during meiosisI or failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II
Could result in trisomyor monosomy |
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Chromosomal Breakage
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spontaneously occurs, or induced by environmental factors
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mutations
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changes in genetic information of a cell in the DNA
somatic cell mutation can cause tumors sex cell mutations are transmitted to offspring Most mutations are silent Mutations that change amino acid sequences are recessive and deleterious |
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Mutagenic Agents
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Induce mutations
radioactive cochicine mustard gas carcinogens |
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Mutation types
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Addid
Deleted Substituted |
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Phenylketonuria
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PKU
Disease with inability to produce enzyme to metabolise phenylalanine |
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Sickle-Cell Anemia
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Disease where hemoglobin becomes misshaped
Hemoglobin carries less oxygen Caused by base pair substitution |
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DNA
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Information coded in sequence of its base pairs
DNA can self-replicate Basis of heredity Mutable and altered under conditions Mutations passed on, basis for evolution |
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Nucleotide
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Basic unit of DNA
Deoxyribose, phospate group and nitrogenous base Purines and Pyrimidines Adenine and Guanine Thymine and Cytosine |
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DNA strand
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double-helix
sugar phosphate backbone T double-bonds to A C triple-bonds to G |
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DNA replication
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molecule unwinds and separates into two strands
each new helix containes strand from parent semiconservative |
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Genetic code
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proteins coded for by 20 amino acids
triplet code is a sequence of mRNA translated as codons many amino acids have several codons-->degeneracy of the genetic code |
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DNA Replication
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DNA-->DNA
new DNA synthesized in 5'-3' direction |
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DNA Transcription
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DNA-->RNA
new RNA synthesized in 5'-3' direction |
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RNA Translation
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RNA-->protein
mRNA read in 5'-3' direction |
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RNA
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ribose
uracil single stranded |
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mRNA
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transports DNA sequence from nucleus to the ribosomes where protein synthesis occurs
mRNA has inverted codes monocistronic-one strand codes for one polypeptide |
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Transfer RNA tRNA
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found in cytoplasm
translates mRNAs nucleotide code into amino acid sequences one type of tRNA for each amino acid |
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RIbosomal RNA -rRNA
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structural component of ribosomes
synthesized in the nucleolus |
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Protein Synthesis
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Transcription-info in the DNA sequence is transcribed into mRNA and leaves the nucleus
Translation-mRNA codons are translated into amino acids. Occurs in the cytoplasm. tRNA brings amino acids to ribosomes for synthesis has anticodon which is complementary to mRNA codons. RIbosomes composed of two subuntits that bind during synthesis. Polypeptide synthesis occurs with initiation (start AUG codon), elongation (h-bonds between mRNA codon and anticodon) and termination (stop codons UAA UAG or UGA arrives in A site) |
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Cytoplasmic Inheritance
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DNA in chloroplasts and mitochondria
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Bacterial Genome
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Single circular chromosome in nucleoid region. contain small circular DNA rings called plasmids
Episomes can be integrated into bacterial genome |
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Bacterial Replication
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begins at origin of replicaiton and proceeds in both directions
synthesized in 5'-3' direction |
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Bacterial Genetic Variance
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reproduce by binary fission
asexual reproduction |
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Bacterial Transformation
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foreign chromosome fragment is incorporated into bacterial chromosome via recombination
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Bacterial Conjugation
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"sexual mating"
transfer of genetic material between two bacteria cytoplasmic conjugation bridges formed between two cells and genetic material Only bacteria with sex factors (F factor) can conjugate |
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Bacterial Transduction
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fragments of chromosome accidentally package into viral progeny produced during viral infection
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Bacterial Recombination
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when linked genes are separated
breakage and rearrangements of adjacent DNA regions of DNA |
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Bacterial Gene Regulation
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RNA polymerase binds to promoter-->structural genes transcribed
Repressor binds to operator-->structural genes not transcribed Inducer binds to repressor-->no binding to operator-->structural genes transcribed |
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Bacteriophage
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virus that infects host bacterum by injecting its DNA:
Lytic-phage DNA manufactures numerous progeny, bacterial cell lyses releasing new virions which can infect other bacteria kill host Lysogenic- integrated into bacterial genome, in harmless form. can spontaneously enter lytic cycle |
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Southern Blot
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allow detection of specific DNA sequence in DNA sample. DNA cleaved into restriction fragments by restriction endonucleases at specific sites. fragments separated by gel electrophoresis
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Polymerase Chain Reaction
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amplification of genes
composed of three steps, denaturation-to separate strands primer annealing-single strand acts as template DNA, primers join templates primer extension-joins dNTPs to primers, adding nucleotides to template |
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Embryology-
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study of development of univellular zygote into multicellular organism
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Fertilization
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egg can be fertilized 12-24 hrs after ovulation
occurs in widest part of oviduct when sperm can encounter an egg. if more than one egg is fertilized, fraternal twins |
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Cleavage
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Early development has rapid mitotic divisions-->increase in cell number without increasing cytoplasm
smaller cells increases nuclear to cytoplasm ratio increase surface area-volume ratio which improves nutrient and gas exchange |
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Indeterminate Cleavage
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results in cells that retain ability to become a complete organism
identical twins |
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determinate cleavage
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cells whose differentiaion is determined early
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Blastulation
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morula-solid ball of embryonic cells=>blastocoel-morula develops fluid filled cavity=>blastula-hollow sphere of cells
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Gastrulation
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blastula=> gastrula is 3 layered
ectoderm-integument (skin, hair, nails, nose, mouth and anal canal, eye lens, and nervous system endoderm-epithelial linings of digestive and respiratory tracts, lungs, liver, pancreas, thyroid, bladder mesoderm-musculoskeletal system, circulatory system, excretory system, gonads, connective tissus, digestive and respiratory |
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External Development
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Fish and amphibians-lay eggs that are fertilized externally
Reptiles, birds, and some mammals develop externally in on land |
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chorion
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lines inside of eggshell. moist membrane permits gas exchange
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allantoid
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sac-like structure in respiration and excretion and has blood vessels to transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, salt, nitrogenous wastes
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amnion
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membrane in egg encloses amniotic fluid. provides aqueous environment, to protect embryo
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yolk sac
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encloses the yolk in the egg. blood vessels in sac transfer food to developing embryo
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Non-placental Internal Developments
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marsupials
develop in mother without a placenta |
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Placental Internal Development
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fetus recieves oxygen across placenta
supplies oxygen and nutrient, removes carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes through placenta and umbilical cord |
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Labor
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strong uterine contractions
1st stage-cervix thins and dilates, amniotic sac ruptures, mild contractions 2nd stage-rapid contactions, birth of baby, cut umbilical cord 3rd stage-uterus contracts expelling placenta and umbilical cord |
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Protozoan circulation
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movement of gases and nutrients by simple diffusion
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Cnidarian circulation
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body walls are 2 cells thick
all cells are in direct contact with internal or external environments no circulatory system |
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Arthropod Circulation
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open circulatory system
blood in direct contact with body tissues. circulation by body movements, flows through dorsal vessel and into sinuses where exchange occurs |
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Annelid Circulation
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Closed circulation system to deliver materials to cells not in direct contact with external environment
Blood confined to blood vessels, heart coordinates contractions Aortic loops connect dorsal vessel to ventral vessel and act as pumps |
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Human circulation
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4 chambered heart, blood vessel network, blood.
oxygenated blood pumped from left ventricle to aorta which branches in to arteries, arterioles, capillaries. Gas and nutrient exchange occurs across capillaries. Capillaries go to venules, veins, leading deoxygenated blood into vena cava. Blood enters right atrium and right ventricle, which pumps blood through pulmonary arteries to lungs to pick up oxygen. oxygenated blood returns to heart through pulmonary veins into left atrium |
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Heart
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Driving force of the circulatory system
Right side pumps deoxygenated blood into pulmonary circulation Left side pumps oxygenated blood to systemic circulation Atria are thin Ventricles are muscular |
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Blood Vessels
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Arteries-thick-walled, muscular, elastic vessels. transport blood away from heart
Veins-have valves to prevent backflow from gravity Capillaries-thin walls composed of epithelial cells which respiratory gases diffuse across, smallest vessel |
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Lymph Vessels
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secondary circulatory system
transport excess interstitial fluid called lymph to cardiovascular system, keeping fluid level in body constant. lymph nodes are swellings alond lymph vessels containing phagocytic leukocyes to filer lymph and destroy pathogens |
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Blood
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4-6 L
55% Plasma, 45% erythrocytes-rbcs, carry oxygen, has hemoglobin molecules, each binds 4 molecules of oxygen. Formed from stem cells in blood marrow leukocytes-wbcs, phagocytize foreign matter, mature to macrophages, or lymphocytes act in immune response platelets-cell fragments without nuclei and help clot |
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Transport of Gases
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erythrocytes transport oxygen throughout circulatory system. hemoglobin binds 4 molecules of oxygen. also binds co2.
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Transport of Nutrients and Wastes
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amino acids and simple sugars are absorbed into bloodstream. metabolic waste products delivered to excretory organs
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Clotting
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platelets come into contact with collagen of damaged vessel forming a platelet plug. Release thromboplastin which converts fibrinogen into fibrin and coats damaged area and traps blood cells to form a clot
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Immunological Reaction
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Humoral Immunity-production of antibodies specific to antigen. Antibodies (Igs) recognize and bind to specific antigens to trigger immune system to remove them. Attract leukocytes to remove antigen or cause clumping and form complexes
Cell-mediated Immunity-cells combat fungal and viral infection. vaccination can stimulate immune system to produce specific antibodies. can take weeks. passive immunity is acquired at birth |
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Nonspecific Defense Mechanism
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Skin-physical barrier against bacteria
Mucous-coated epithelia passages- filter and trap foreign particles Macrophages-engulf and destroy foreign particles Inflammatory Resoponse- initiated by body in response to physical damage. Injured cells release histamines and blood vessels dilated increasing blood flow. Fever Interferons-proteins produced when cells are under attack. diffuse to other cells and prevent spread of virus |
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Transplant Rejections
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organs detected as foreign bodies by recipient. Immune response can cause transplant to be rejected. Use immuno-suppressing druges
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ABO Blood Types
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RBC antigens are ABO group and Rh factor-+ or -, important during pregnancy if the mother and fetus are not the same
AB-universal recipient O-universal donor |
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Endocrine System
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internal communication, coordinating organ systems. glands synthesize and secrete hormones into circulatory system.
Pituitary, hypothalamus, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, testes, ovaries, pineal, kidneys, gastrointestinal, heart, and thymus |
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Adrenal Glands
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on top of kidneys
adrenal cortex-ACTH stimulates to synthesize and secrete corticosteroids. adrenal medulla-produces epinephrine, norepinephrine, which are catecholamines Adrenal Hormones are under the control of ACTH which is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland |
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Corticosteroids
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glucocorticoids-cortisol, cortisone help with glucose regulation and protein metabolism. raise glucose levels by promoting protein breakdown and gluconeogenesis and decreasing protein synthesis. Raise plasma glucose levels.
Mineralocorticoids-aldosterone, regulate plasma levels of sodium and potassium. nephron reabsorbs sodium and water Cortical sex hormones-adrenal cortex secretes andogens like androstenedione and dehydroepiandrosterone in males and females. overproduction in females can cause masculinization. |
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Pituitary Gland
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lies at base of brain
Anterior Pituitary: Direct Hormones-Growth Hormone, Prolactin Tropic hormones-Adrenocorticotropic Hormone, Thyroid-stimulating hormone, Luteinizing hormone, Follicle-stimulating hormone, Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone FLATPiG Posterior Pituitary: Oxytocin, Antidiuretic Hormone |
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Growth Hormone
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promotes bone and muscle growth, can lead to dwarfism or gigantism in children or acromegaly in adults
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Prolactin
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stimulates milk production and secretion
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ACTH
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stimulates adrenal cortex to synthesize and secrete glucocorticoids and is regulated by the releasing hormone corticotrophin releasing factor
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Thyroid-stimulating hormone
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stimulates thyroid gland to synthesize and release thyroid hormone including thyroxin
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Luteinizing hormone
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stimulates ovulation and formation of corpus luteum in females. in males, stimulates maturation of seminiferous tubules and sperm production
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Follicle-stimulation hormone
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in females causes maturation of ovarian follicles begin secreting estrogen. in males, stimulates matur of seminiferous tubules and sperm production
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Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone
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secreted by intermediate lobe of pituitary. in frogs, causes darkening of the skin
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Oxytocin
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secreted during childbirth, increases strength and frequency of uterine muscle contractions. also induced by suckling, stimulates milk secretion in mammary glands
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Antidiuretic Hormone
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increases permeabiliry of nephron's collecting duct to water, promoting water reabsoption and increasing blood volume. secreted when plasma osmolarity increases, sensed by osmoreceptors in hypothalamus or when blood volume decreases as detected by baraoreceptors
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Hypothalamus
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part of forebrain directly above the pituitary gland
Interacts with anterior pituitary Hypothalamus ->(Hypothalamic Hormone)->Anterior Pituitary->(Ant. Pit. Hormone)->Peripheral Endocrine Gland->Peripheral gland hormone->targets Exhibits negative feedback |
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Thyroid
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bi-lobed gland on ventral surface of trachea
produces and secretes thyroxin(T4), triiodothyronine(T3), calcitonin |
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T4 & T3
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Derived from iodination of tyrosine
Increase rate of metabolism Hypothyroidism-undersecretion Hyperthyroidism-oversecretion both can result in goiter (neck bulge) |
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Calcitonin
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Produced and secreted by Thyroid
decreases plasma Ca2+ by inhibiting release from bone. Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone |
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Pancreas
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exocrine and endocrine
Endocrine-Islets of Langerhans have alpha and beta cells Alpha=>Glucagon Beta=>Insulin |
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Glucagon
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Alpha Cells in Islets of Langerhans
stimulates protein and fat degradation, conversion of glycogen to glucose, and glucogenesis. Increases glucose levels |
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Insulin
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Beta cells of Islets of Langerhans
protein hormone that responds to high blood glucose conc. Stimulates glucose uptake by muscle and adipose cells and glucose storage as glycogen. Stimulates fat synthesis and amino acid uptake |
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Parathyroid Glands
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four structures embedded in posterior of thyroid
Synthesize and secrete ParaThyroid Hormone (PTH)-increases Ca2+ by increasing bone deposition |
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Kidneys
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Renin-enzyme produced when blood volume falls to convert angiotensinogen to angiotensin I to angiotensin II to stimulate adrenal cortex to release aldosterone which increases Na+ reabsobtion and increasing water. Neg. feedback
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Gastrointestinal Hormones
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Gastrin-released by stomach. Stimulates gastric glands to secrete HCl in response to food
Secretin-released by small intestin, stimulates solution from pancrease to neutralize acidity of chyme Cholecystokinin-released from small intestine in response to fats. Gallbladder contracts and bile is release to digest the fats |
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Pineal Gland
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Base of brain
Melatonin-drowsiness. Regulated by light and dark cycles in environment |
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Peptide Hormone
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Surface Receptors
Secondary Messengers |
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Steroid Hormone
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Intracellular Receptors
Hormone/Receptor binding to DNA promotes transcription of specific genes |
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Nervous System
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Enables organisms to receive and respond to stimuli from external and internal environments
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Neurons
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Functional unit of nervous system
Convert stimuli into electrochemical signals that are conducted rapidly through nervous system Dendrites, Cell body, Axon |
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Dendrite
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Cytoplasmic Extention
Receives info and transmits toward cell body |
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Cell Body (Neuron)
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Contains nucleus and controls metabolic activity of neuron
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Axon (Neuron)
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Long cellular process that transmits impulses away from cell body
Covered in myelin to convey faster End in swelling Synaptic terminals |
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Myelin (Neuron)
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Produce by Glial Cells
Gaps called Nodes of Ranvier |
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Neurotransmitters
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Released from synaptic terminals into synapse (gap between axon and dendrite)
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