Logic I Final

Front 1

The three basic sources of conscious knowing are

Back 1

1) direct experience
2) faith
3) reason

Front 2

Define Logic

Back 2

Logic is the scientific understanding of how reasoning correctly works.

Front 3

Parmenides around what year was the first philosopher to distinguish between these two types of objects

Back 3

-500 BC
-scientific knowledge of unchanging truth
-non-scientific knowledge of transitory fact

Front 4

Aristotle, around what year, wrote this famous treatise

Back 4

-350 BC
-Prior and Posterior Analytics

Front 5

Provide a description of the Modern Era

Back 5

-1600
-Analysis + Mathematics = Modern Scientific Methodology

Front 6

Give their views on Mathematics:
1) Plato
2) Aristotle
3) Rene Descartes

Back 6

1) Plato believed math existed as an unchanging substance outside our universe. So it was impressed on our memory before birth, or innate.
2) We acquired math through abstraction from physical world around us.
3) Rene Originally believed math is simply fiction of our mind

Front 7

Aristotle argued there are three main ways of argumentation/ to arrive at a conclusion:

Back 7

1) Demonstration - yields scientific conclusions
2) Dialectics - provides merely probable results (every day life)
3) Rhetoric - emotional appeal

Front 8

-Three basic operations in our mind

-Physical expression related to the operation

Back 8

1) Abstraction - the process of grasping something of the specific nature of an object. -Product is Concept -Expression is a Term.
2) Judgment - relating concepts to reality. -Propositions
3) Reason - reaching new judgments. - Syllogism

Front 9

Univocal Term

Back 9

Applies same meaning to two or more objects:

I am tall. She is tall.

Front 10

Equivocal Term

Back 10

Applies different meaning to different objects.

Sam is gay. Will is gay.

Front 11

Analogical Term

Back 11

Term used of different objects with a meadning which is not the same, but related or similar

The climate of Arizona is healthy. My parrot is healthy.

Front 12

Collective vs Non-Collective Term

1) The articles in this box weight over 20 lbs
2) Diamonds are expensive
3) Members of the Boston Ballet create an outstanding ensemble

Back 12

1) Collective
2) Non-collective
3) Collective

Front 13

Equivocation

Back 13

Words often have more than one meaning. The mistake of equivocation consists in the use of a word in an inconsistent way.

ex: All banks are beside rivers.

Front 14

Amphibole

Back 14

The error of structuring a proposition so that grammatically it can be taken in more than one way

Ex: Thief found by tree
High School drop-outs cut in half.

Front 15

Composition

Back 15

Mistakenly concluding that what is true of each part must be true of the whole.

ex: The human race will disappear from Earth, for each human dies.
Ex: Eating one chip won't make you fat, so eating chips daily won't either.

Humans are made up of invisible cells, so humans must be invisible.

Front 16

Division

Back 16

Mistakenly concluding what is true of the whole must be true of each separate part.

Ex: John's relay team won the 200 Medley, so John must have the fastest 200 IM. - False.

ex: The Universe, which is made of atoms, has existed has billions of years. So all atoms must have been around for billions of years.

Front 17

Accent

Back 17

Misrepresenting meaning by altering tone

ex: I resent that letter

Front 18

Context

Back 18

Failure to realize that facts change over time / in different context

"I killed him" - in a video game

Front 19

Mistaken Literalness

Back 19

The mistake of taken a figure of speech as a literal expression

ex: I could murder him when he acts like that/
ex: Preach from the housetops.

Front 20

Hypostatization

Back 20

Treating an abstraction (or an idea) as though it were a person

ex: You are in good hands with Allstate

Front 21

Sweeping Generalization

Back 21

Assume what is true under certain conditions must be true under all conditions

ex: Hurting another person is bad; therefore dentists commit bad acts.

Front 22

Hasty Generalization

Back 22

Presuming what you saw you be true from insufficient information

ex: A girl walked into me in broad day light, she must have been drunk

Front 23

Begging the Question

Back 23

Simply restating in another form what was already proven

Ex: Miracles are impossible for they cannot happen

Front 24

Loaded Words

Back 24

words with contention (or opposition)

-The name of the gun was the Peacekepper

Front 25

False Analogy

Back 25

Distorting the Facts - a comparison in which the two things do not resemble each other, so it is invalid.

ex: A corporate tax hike... what?

Front 26

False Cause

Back 26

Distorting the Facts - falsely presuming that because things coincide or follow that one is the cause of the other

Front 27

False association

Back 27

artificially arranged facts presented as "natural"

ex: Michael Phelps in Subway commercial
ex: Hot women in cigarette commercial

Front 28

Appeal to the
Mob
Ignorance
Other Emotions

Back 28

Mistakes of irrelevance

Front 29

Linguistics

Back 29

The study of the NATURE of a language

Front 30

Philology

Back 30

The study of the EVOLUTION of languages

Front 31

Etymology

Back 31

The ORIGIN of words

Front 32

Grammar

Back 32

The science dealing with the CORRECT USE of words

Front 33

Syntax

Back 33

The ORDER of words

Front 34

Semantics

Back 34

the MEANING of words

Front 35

Diction

Back 35

Word selection / choice

Front 36

Phonetics

Back 36

The science of Pronunciation

Front 37

Pronunciation

Back 37

The speaking of words (accent and inflection)

Front 38

Inflection

Back 38

Alteration of syllables and sound, changes word meaning

Front 39

Enunciation

Back 39

The clarity of articulation

Front 40

5 types of expressions that cannot be included in a syllogism:

Back 40

1) Emotive - feeling or desire
2) Imperative - an order or command
3) Fictive - made up
4) Interrogatory - a question
5) Peformatory - declaration "I will"

Front 41

Determine the mood of each proposition:

Not all inexplicable events are miraculous.
Mountain climbing is a good hobby.
No man is an island.
Some men are impatient for night.
Others are hopeless pessimists.

Back 41

O
A
E
I
I

Front 42

Draw the Square of Opposition

Back 42

http://content.answers.com/main/content/img/oxford/Oxford_Philosophy/0198610130.square-of-opposition.1.jpg

Front 43

Contradictory Propositions

Back 43

(A-O) (E-I)

Contradictory Prop. cannot both be true, and they cannot both be false.

Front 44

Contrary Propositions

Back 44

(A-E)

-Contraries cannot both be true.
-They can both be false. However, if one is given as false, the other will be doubtful.

Front 45

Subcontrary Propositions

Back 45

(I-O)

-Subcontraries can both be true
-They cannot both be false

Front 46

Subaltern Propositions

Back 46

(A-I) (E-O)

-The universal is the subalternant, the particular is the subalternate. Together called subalterns
-It is valid to say if A is true then I is true, but not valid to go opposite direction.

Front 47

Square of Opposition Practice

Given as false: Some events are uncaused.

Back 47

Given I- False

E - True
A - False
O - True

Front 48

Obversion

Back 48

Statement is made to state the same meaning in opposite form.

Contradict the copula
Contradict the predicate

Front 49

Kinds of Obversion

Back 49

A-E:
All skilifts are uncomfortable.
No skilifts are comfortable.

E-A
I-O
O-I:
Some sayings are not the kind that make sense.
Some sayings are nonsensical.

Front 50

Conversion

Back 50

Subject and predicate are exchanged in a manner in which the statement still has an equivalent meaning.

Front 51

Kinds of Conversion

Back 51

A-I
All science is organized - Some organized knowledge is scientific.

E-E
No scientist is an ignorant person - No ignorant person is a scientist.

I-I

O cannot be converted!

Front 52

Partial Contraposition

Back 52

(OC)
Obvert
Convert

A-E; E-I; O-I

Front 53

Full Contraposition

Back 53

(OCO)
Obvert - Affirm to Neg / Neg to Affirm
Convert - Switch order of sentence
Obvert - Affirm to Neg / Neg to Affirm

A-A; E-O; O-O

Front 54

Sample Contraposition

1) All imaginative persons are resourceful

2) No finite being is perfect

3) Some involuntary act is not deliberate.

Back 54

1) All unresourceful persons are unimaginative

2) Some imperfect being is not infinite.

3) Something indeliberate is not a voluntary act

Front 55

Inversion

Back 55

A - OCOC

E - COCO

I and O propositions cannot be inverted

Front 56

Direct Process of Inversion

Back 56

Contradict both of the original terms and leave them in original positions

ex:
(A) All inattentive students are undeserving of good marks.
(I) Some attentive students are deserving of good marks.

(E) No mature person is unstable.
(O) Some immature person is not stable.

Front 57

Necessary
1) Nature
2) Stipulated

Contingent

Back 57

1) A tuna is a fish - T by nature
2) Sophomores live in Walsh - T stipulated

This is warm. - T contigent

Front 58

The Four Figures of a Syllogism

Back 58

Figure 1
M-P
S-M
S-P

Figure 2
P-M
S-M
S-P

Hint 58

Figure 3
M-P
M-S
S-P

Figure 4
P-M
M-S
S-P

Front 59

Quantity of the Four Moods

A
E
I
O

Back 59

A - UP

E - UU

I - PP

O - PU

Front 60

Counting Up

Back 60

All houses on this block are split-level.
My house is on the block
My house is split level

Front 61

Collective - Noncollective Fallacy

(Composition)

Back 61

Our class is intelligent
I am a member of our class
I am intelligent

Front 62

The 6 rules of a syllogism

Back 62

1) The syllogism should consist of no more than three terms
2) The middle term must be universal in at least one premise
3) No term which is particular in a premise may be made universal in the conclusion
4) No conclusion can be drawn from two negative premises
5) Two affirmative premises require an affirmative conclusion
6) A negative premise requires a negative conclusion

Front 63

Two Corollaries to the rules of syllogisms:

Back 63

1. No conclusion can be drawn from two particular premises.

2. A particular premise requires a particular conclusion.

Front 64

The mood of the sentence:

Only bugs like to crawl on the ground.

Back 64

A - UU

The word "Only" makes it UU

Front 65

Existential Fallacy

Back 65

When a conclusion posits existence, while the premises left the question of existence open.

Front 66

Enthymeme

Back 66

1st Order - Major Missing
2nd Order - Minor Missing
3rd Order - Conclusion Missing

Look for key conclusion words, "therefore, ergo, thus, hence"

The word because tells you the conclusion is within the enthymeme, but it major/minor comes directly after the word because.

Front 67

Chain Arguments

Back 67

Sorites Test is the most popular
A is B
B is C
So A is C

All parts of Chain must be valid in order for chain to be valid.
If it is not a Sorites test, break it up into syllogisms.

Constantly look for equivocation to prove wrong Sorites test.

Front 68

Ephicheirema

Back 68

Complex of arguments all directed towards a single conclusion.

Look for a syllogism within the paragraph.

Front 69

Three types of truth functional statements

Back 69

Hypothetical/ Conditional (if...then)

Disjunctive (either...or)

Conjunctive (cannot be both)

Front 70

Hypothetical syllogism

Back 70

Valid to posit the antecedent and sublate the consequent

Hint 70

Antecedent and consequent are called clauses

Front 71

If and only if...

Back 71

Biconditional

uses three lines between clauses

Always doubtful

Front 72

Disjunctive syllogism

Back 72

Valid only to sublate

More than two clauses may be used in the major

Front 73

Conjunctive syllogism

Back 73

Valid only to posit

~(p . q)
p
----------------
q Valid

Front 74

Simple Dilemma

Back 74

Major Premise: 2 Hypotheticals
Minor Premise: 1 Disjunctive
Conclusion: Clause

Same outcome for both hypothetical. That outcome is the conclusion

Front 75

Complex Dilemma

Back 75

(p > q) . (r > s)
p v r
--------------
q v s

Front 76

Put into symbolic logic:

The fact that he stole your scarf is no reason that you should not help him.

Back 76

~H

Front 77

Symbolic Logic:

Even if furnace is not working, you should have it checked out.

Back 77

Simple dilemma

Front 78

Induction

Back 78

Method starting with particular facts and attempting to draw a general conclusion.

No set of rules, based on trial and error and subject to constant revisions.

Front 79

Two major steps of inductions:

Back 79

1) Gathering data through experimentation and observation

2) Arrive at insight towards a commonality of the data

Front 80

Modern Scientific Methocology

Back 80

Data is measured and translated into mathematical terms.

Hypothesis/Formula is formed, that being a math structure that represents. These make it easier to control substance.

Lastly, test theory through experiment, and if it is accurate then it is "verified".

Front 81

A propositions is...

Back 81

A sentence which expresses something is either true or false.

Front 82

What is this symbol called ~

Back 82

Truth functional operator

Front 83

What is this symbol called .

Back 83

Truth functional connector

Hint 83

Can be used for and, but, yet

Front 84

Give truth tables for
1) ~p . ~q

2) p v ~q

Back 84

F
F
F
T

Hint 84

T
T
F
T

Front 85

Conjunction

Back 85

Both conjuncts must be true in order for the conjunction to be true

Front 86

Disjunction

Back 86

p and q are alternatives

Just one alternative must be true in order for the disjunction to be true

Front 87

If a truth table is always false its called...

F
F
F
F

Back 87

Contradiction