Logan College Of Chiropractic Physiology Ii Exam 4

Front 1

The adrenals are located where?

Back 1

One on top of each kidney

Front 2

What does the Medulla of the adrenal glads produce?

Back 2

epinephrine and norepinephrine

Front 3

How many hormones does the cortex of the adrenal glads produce?

Back 3

3

Front 4

The cortex of the adrenal gland is derived from what embryological material?

Back 4

mesoderm

Front 5

The medulla of the adrenal gland is derived from what embryological material?

Back 5

ectoderm

Front 6

What are the zones of the adrenal cortex?

Back 6

zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis

Front 7

The zona glomerulosa secretes what?

Back 7

mineralocorticoids mainly aldosterone

Front 8

The zona fasciculata secretes what?

Back 8

glucocorticoids mainly cortisol

Front 9

The zona reticularis secretes what?

Back 9

androgens mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)

Front 10

The adrenal medulla chromaffin cells secrete what?

Back 10

epinephrine and nonepinephrine

Front 11

Steroid hormones

Back 11

carried in plasma by binding proteins, have cytosolic receptors, regulate gene expression

Front 12

What does aldosterone do?

Back 12

increases the rate of Na reabsorption by the kidneys increasing Na blood levels

Front 13

What does cortisol do?

Back 13

Increases fat and protein breakdown, increases glucose synthesis, decreases inflammatory response

Front 14

What does DHEA do?

Back 14

androgens converted to other steroids

Front 15

What does epinephrine do?

Back 15

In general preparation for physical activity
increased cardiac output, blood flow to skeletal muscles and the heart, increased release of glucose and fatty acids into the blood

Front 16

What are the target tissues for epinephrine and norepinephrine?

Back 16

heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells

Front 17

What are the target tissues for cortisol?

Back 17

most tissues

Front 18

What is the target tissue for aldosterone?

Back 18

kindeny

Front 19

What are the target tissues for sex steroids (primarily androgens)?

Back 19

many tissues

Front 20

What hormone is responsible for 95% of hormonal activity?

Back 20

aldosterone

Front 21

Aldosterone's funtion is what?

Back 21

To maintain homeostasis of Na+ and K+

Front 22

Aldosterone increases the reabsorption of ____ and excretion of ______.

Back 22

Na+; K+ and H+

Front 23

Aldosterone adjusts what?

Back 23

blood pressure and blood volume

Front 24

Hypersecretion of aldosterone causes what?

Back 24

tumor producing aldosteronism: high blood pressure caused by retention of Na+ and water in blood

Front 25

What are cortisol functions?

Back 25

Helps to regulate metabolism (increases glu)
Increase rate of protein catabolism
Gluconeogenesis
Stimulate lipolysis
Provide resistance to stress by making nutrients avalible for ATP production
Raise BP via vasoconstriction
Anti-inflammatory
Depress immune responses

Front 26

What are the target cells for glucocorticoid hormones?

Back 26

Peripheral tissues, such as skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue = inhibits glucose use
Immune tissues = anti-inflammatory
Target cells for epinephrine = receptor molecules decrease without glucocorticoids

Front 27

Describe the regulation of cortisol secretion.

Back 27

Stress, hypoglycemia→ release of cortiocotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamic neurons→ in anterior pituitary CRH binds and stimulates the secretion of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)→ ACTH binds to receptors in the adrenal cortex and stimulates the secretion of glucocorticoids→ cortisol inhibits CRH and ACTH secretion

Front 28

The zona reticularis produces small amounts of what?

Back 28

Male hormone

Front 29

DHEA does what?

Back 29

Insignificant in males
Contributes to female sex drive
Is converted to estrogens
Stimulates growth of axillary hair and pubic hair
Contributes to growth spurts

Front 30

What stimulates secretion of DHEA?

Back 30

ACTH

Front 31

What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia?

Back 31

Genetic disorder, defective cortisol synthesis, adrenal cortex enlarges and there is an accumulation of cortisol precursors, some of which a are converted to testosterone.

Front 32

What is another term for masculinization?

Back 32

Virilism

Front 33

Virilism in females causes what?

Back 33

Adrenogenital syndrom
Growth of a beard and male distribution of body hair, deeper voice, atrophy of the breasts, growth of clitoris

Front 34

Virilism in males causes what?

Back 34

Nothing it is masked by the effects of testosterone.

Front 35

What are the clinical features of Addison’s disease (primary adrenocortical insufficiency)?

Back 35

Hypoglycemia (anorexia, weight loss, nausea, vomiting, weakness), hypotension, hyperkalemia, metabolic acidosis, decreased pubic and axillary hair in females, hyperpigmentation

Front 36

What are the ACTH levels in Addison’s disease?

Back 36

Increased

Front 37

What is the treatment of Addison’s disease?

Back 37

Replacement of glucocorticods and mineralocorticoids

Front 38

What are the clinical features of Cushing’s syndrome (primary adrenal hyperplasia)?

Back 38

Hyperglycemia (muscle wasting), central obesity, round face, supraclavicular fat, buffalo hump, osteoporosis striae, virilzation and menstrual disorders in females, hypertension

Front 39

What are the ACTH levels in Cushing’s syndrome?

Back 39

Decreased

Front 40

What is the treatment of Cushing’s syndrome?

Back 40

Ketoconazole, metyrapone

Front 41

What are the clinical features of Cushing’s disease

Back 41

Hyperglycemia (muscle wasting), central obesity, round face, supraclavicular fat, buffalo hump, osteoporosis striae, virilzation and menstrual disorders in females, hypertension

Front 42

What are the levels of ACTH in Cushing’s disease?

Back 42

Increased

Front 43

What is the treatment of Cushing’s disease?

Back 43

Surgical removal of ACTH secreting tumor

Front 44

What are the clinical features of Conn’s syndrome (aldosterone-secreting tumor)?

Back 44

Hypertension, hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis (decreased rennin levels)

Front 45

What are the treatments for Conn’s syndrome?

Back 45

Aldosterone antagonist (e.g., spironolactone), surgery

Front 46

What are the clinical features of 21β-Hydeoxylase deficiency?

Back 46

Virilization of females, symtoms of deficiency of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

Front 47

What are the levels of ACTH in 21β-Hydeoxylase deficiency?

Back 47

Increased

Front 48

What is the treatment of 21β-Hydeoxylase deficiency?

Back 48

Replacement of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

Front 49

What are the clinical features of 17α-Hydroxylase deficiency?

Back 49

Lack of pubic and axillary hair in females, symptoms of deficiency of glucocorticoids, symptoms of excess mineralocorticoids

Front 50

What are the levels of ACTH in 17α-Hydroxylase deficiency?

Back 50

Increased

Front 51

What are some treatments of 17α-Hydroxylase deficiency?

Back 51

Replacement of glucocorticoids, aldosterone antagonist

Front 52

What is Cushing’s syndrome often attributed to?

Back 52

Increased ATCH levels most often non-pituitary tumors, or adrenal tumors

Front 53

What are the symptoms of hyposecretion of aldosterone?

Back 53

Hyponatremia (low blood levels of Na)
Hyperkalemia (high blood levels of K)
Acidosis
Low Blood Pressure
Tremors and tetany of skeletal muscles
Polyuria

Front 54

What are the symptoms of hypersecretion of aldosterone?

Back 54

Slight hypematremia (high blood levels of Na)
Hypokalemia (low blood levels of K)
Alkalosis
High blood pressure
Weakness of skeletal muscle
Acidic urine

Front 55

What are they symptoms of hyposecretion of cortisol?

Back 55

Hypoglycemia (low blood glucose levels)
Depressed immune system
Weight loss from unused proteins and fats from diet
Loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting
Increased skin pigmentation

Front 56

What are the symptoms of hypersecretion of cortisol?

Back 56

Hyperglycemia (high blood glucose levels; adrenal diabetes)
depressed immune system
distruction of tissue proteins
moon face and buffalo hump
emotional effects including euphoria and depression

Front 57

What are the symptoms of hyposecretion of androgens?

Back 57

In women reduction of pubic and axillary hair

Front 58

What are they symptoms of hypersecretion of androgens

Back 58

In women hirsuitism (excessive facial and body hair), acne, increased sex drive, regression on breast tissue, loss of regular menses

Front 59

Where does chromaffin cells recive their innervation?

Back 59

sympathetic nervous system

Front 60

Describe the regulation of adrenal medullary secretions.

Back 60

Stress, physical acticity, low blood glucose levels stimulates the hypothalamus→AP travel through the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system→stimulates the adrenal medulla →increases norepinephrine and epinephrine secretions→goes to target cells

Front 61

Where is the hypothalamus located?

Back 61

Above where pituitary gland is suspended from stalk (infundibulum).

Front 62

Where does the hypothalamus receive input from?

Back 62

Cortex, thalamus, limbic system & internal organs.

Front 63

The pituitary gland and hypothalamus is where what systems interact?

Back 63

Nervous and Endocrine systems.

Front 64

How does the hypothalamus regulate secretory activity of pituitary gland?

Back 64

Through neurohormones (releasing and inhibiting) and action potentials.

Front 65

What is another name for the pituitary gland?

Back 65

Hypophysis

Front 66

Where is the pituitary gland found?

Back 66

In sella turcica of sphenoid.

Front 67

What attaches the pituitary gland to the brain?

Back 67

Infundibulum

Front 68

How much of the pituitary gland is anterior lobe and what does it develop from?

Back 68

75%; develops from roof of mouth (Rathke’s pouch).

Front 69

How much of the pituitary gland is posterior lobe and what does it develop from?

Back 69

25%; develops from floor of neural tube – diencephalon.

Front 70

What is found in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

Back 70

Ends of axons of 10,000 neurons found in hypothalamus and neuroglial cells called pituicytes.

Front 71

What is the name for the posterior pituitary?

Back 71

Neurohypophysis

Front 72

What is the name for the anterior pituitary?

Back 72

Adenohypophysis

Front 73

What are the three distinct areas of the anterior pituitary?

Back 73

Pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars tuberalis

Front 74

What does the Supra-Optic Nucleus contain/secrete?

Back 74

5/6 of ADH.

Front 75

What does the Paraventricular Nucleus contain/secrete?

Back 75

Oxytocin and 1/6 of ADH.

Front 76

What is the advantage of the hypothalamophyophysial portal system?

Back 76

Achieves speed and saves energy. Allows specificity.

Front 77

What is the flow of blood to the Anterior Pituitary?

Back 77

Controlling hormones enter blood, travel through portal veins, and enter pituitary at capillaries.

Front 78

What are the hormones of the Posterior Pituitary Gland?

Back 78

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin.

Front 79

What two hormones are secreted by the same cell type?

Back 79

FSH and LH.

Front 80

What secretes HGH?

Back 80

Somatotrophs

Front 81

What secretes TSH?

Back 81

Thyrotrophs

Front 82

What secretes FSH?

Back 82

Gonadotrophs

Front 83

What secretes LH?

Back 83

Gonadotrophs

Front 84

What secretes PRL?

Back 84

Lactotrophs

Front 85

What secretes ACTH?

Back 85

Corticotrophs

Front 86

What secretes Melanocyte-stimulating hormone?

Back 86

Croticotrophs

Front 87

What is the releasing hormone of HGH?

Back 87

GHRH

Front 88

What is the releasing hormone of TSH?

Back 88

TRH

Front 89

What is the releasing hormone of FSH?

Back 89

GnRH

Front 90

What is the releasing hormone of LH?

Back 90

GnRH

Front 91

What is the releasing hormone of PRL?

Back 91

PRH; TRH.

Front 92

What is the releasing hormone of ACTH?

Back 92

CRH

Front 93

What is the releasing hormone of Melanoctye-stimulating hormone?

Back 93

CRH

Front 94

What is the inhibiting hormone of HGH?

Back 94

GHIH

Front 95

What is the inhibiting hormone of TSH?

Back 95

GHIH

Front 96

What is the inhibiting hormone of PRL?

Back 96

PIH, which is dopamine.

Front 97

What is the inhibiting hormone of Melanocyte-stimulating hormone?

Back 97

Dopamine

Front 98

Human Growth Hormone is _____ - soluble.

Back 98

Water

Front 99

What does HGH increase synthesis of within target cells?

Back 99

IGFs that act locally or enter bloodstream.

Front 100

What are common target cells of HGH?

Back 100

Liver, skeletal muscle, cartilage and bone.

Front 101

What kind of growth does HGH increase?

Back 101

Hypertrophy (cell growth) & Hyperplasia (cell division) by increasing their uptake of amino acids & synthesis of proteins.

Front 102

HGH stimulates lipolysis in adipoctyes so that fatty acids can be used for what?

Back 102

ATP

Front 103

What does HGH stimulate in the liver?

Back 103

Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis – to increase blood glucose level.

Front 104

What is the effect of HGH on the uptake of glucose by muscle?

Back 104

It retards the uptake so blood glucose levels remain high enough to supply brain.

Front 105

What stimulates the release of GHRH from the hpothalamus?

Back 105

Low blood sugar. Anterior pituitary releases more hGH & more glycogen broken down into glucose by liver cells.

Front 106

High blood sugar stimulates release of what hormone from the hypothalamus?

Back 106

GHIH

Front 107

What time of day is growth hormone released most?

Back 107

At night during sleep cycle.

Front 108

What is Acromegaly?

Back 108

High levels of growth hormone after puberty.

Front 109

What are typical findings in Acromegaly?

Back 109

Osteoarthritic vertebral changes, visual field changes (bitemporal hemianopia), Hirsutism, gynecomastra and lactation, & enlarged hands and feet.

Front 110

What can excess growth hormone lead to?

Back 110

Insulin resistance and glucose intolerance. Raises blood glucose concentration, pancreas releases insulin continually, and beta-cell burnout.

Front 111

What does the Diabetogenic Effect eventually cause?

Back 111

Diabetes mellitus, if no insulin activity can occur.

Front 112

What stage in life is growth hormone secretion greatest?

Back 112

Puberty

Front 113

What family of hormones are glycoproteins?

Back 113

TSH, FSH, and LH.

Front 114

What does TSH stimulate the synthesis & secretion of?

Back 114

T3 (triiodothryonine) and T4 (thyroxine).

Front 115

What is the effect of TSH on metabolic rate?

Back 115

Stimulated

Front 116

What is the very specific target of TSH?

Back 116

Thryoid gland.

Front 117

What are the functions of FSH in females?

Back 117

Initiates the formation of follicles within the ovary & stimulates follicle cells to secrete estrogen

Front 118

What is the function of FSH in males?

Back 118

Stimulates sperm production in testes.

Front 119

In females, LH stimulates the ovary to do what?

Back 119

Secrete estrogen, ovulation of secondary ooctye, and formation of corpus luteum which secretes progesterone.

Front 120

What does LH stimulate in males?

Back 120

Stimulates interstitial (Leydig) cells to secrete testosterone.

Front 121

Under the right conditions, what does prolactin (PRL) cause?

Back 121

Milk production (synthesis).

Front 122

What does the act of ‘suckling’ cause?

Back 122

Reduces levels of hypothalamic inhibition and prolactin levels rise along with milk production.

Front 123

What hormone stimulates breast development, lactogenesis, and inhibits ovulation?

Back 123

Prolactin (PRL).

Front 124

What time of day is Prolactin (PRL) release increased?

Back 124

During night/sleep (10pm – 7am).

Front 125

What hormone stimulates cells of the adrenal cortex that produce glucocorticoids?

Back 125

ACTH

Front 126

What is the function of Melanocyte-Stimulating hormone?

Back 126

Function not certain in humans but increases skin pigmentation in frogs.

Front 127

Does the posterior pituitary gland synthesize hormones?

Back 127

NO

Front 128

What do the neurons of the posterior pituitary gland release?

Back 128

Two neurohormones that enter capillaries and the systemic circulation – ADH (synthesized in the supraoptic nucleus) & Oxytocin (synthesized in the paraventricular nucleus).

Front 129

What is the difference in the structure of ADH and Oxytocin?

Back 129

Only 2 amino acids different.

Front 130

What are the two target tissues of Oxytocin involved in neuroendocrine reflexes?

Back 130

Uterus and mammary glands.

Front 131

What effect does Oxytocin have during the delivery of a baby?

Back 131

The baby’s head stretches cervix, hormone release enhances uterine muscle contraction, and then baby and placenta are delivered.

Front 132

What effect does Oxtyocin have after the delivery of baby?

Back 132

Causes muscle contraction and milk ejection.

Front 133

Oxytocin during Labor:

Back 133

Stimulation of uterus by baby
Hormone release from posterior pituitary
Uterine smooth muscle contracts until birth of baby
Baby pushed into cervix, increase hormone release
More muscle contraction occurs
When baby is born, positive feedback ceases

Front 134

What is another name for Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)?

Back 134

Vasopressin

Front 135

What is the major goal of ADH?

Back 135

Decrease water loss to decrease blood osmolarity.

Front 136

How does ADH decrease blood osmolarity?

Back 136

Decreases urine production by increasing water reabsorption from kidneys; decreases sweating.

Front 137

What is the effect of ADH on blood pressure?

Back 137

Increase BP.

Front 138

Increased plasma osmolarity is the major stimulus for what hormone?

Back 138

ADH

Front 139

What is the effect of dehydration and overhydration on ADH?

Back 139

Dehydration – ADH released
Overhydration – ADH inhibited

Front 140

Lack of ADH causes what disease?

Back 140

Diabetes insipidus.

Front 141

Where is the pineal gland located?

Back 141

Roof of the third ventricle. (diencephalon)

Front 142

What is responsible for the setting of the biological clock?

Back 142

melatonin

Front 143

What is a synthetic precursor of melatonin?

Back 143

seretonin

Front 144

melatonin does what?

Back 144

enhances sleep, it is secreted in the dark (11pm-7am), can decrease GnRH

Front 145

Whatdoes arginine vasotocin do?

Back 145

regulates function on reproductive system in some animals

Front 146

What does melatonin secretion cause?

Back 146

sleepiness due to lack of stimulation from sympathetic ganglion

Front 147

Explain Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Jet Lag.

Back 147

Depression that occurs during winter moths when the day length is short.
Due to overproduction of melatonin

Front 148

What are other roles of melatonin not related to circadian rhythm?

Back 148

induces natural sleep
inhibits reproductive hormones
useful as a contraceptive
antioxidant

Front 149

Where is the thyroid located?

Back 149

on each side of the trachea is a lobe of the thyroid

Front 150

What is unique about the thyroid compaired to other endocrine glands?

Back 150

It can store its hormones in large quantities for up to 100 days

Front 151

Histologicaly what is the thyroid made of ?

Back 151

follicles, parafollicular cells

Front 152

parafollicular cells secrete what?

Back 152

calcitonin

Front 153

Calcitonin does what?

Back 153

reduces calcium concentration in body fluids

Front 154

Thyroid hormones include?

Back 154

triiodothryronine or T3
tetraiodothyronine or T4 or thyroxine

Front 155

T3 an T4 can do what?

Back 155

increased rate of glucose, fat, protein metabolism in many tissues thus increasing body temperature

Front 156

Is T3 or T4 predominately secreted form?

Back 156

T4

Front 157

Is T3 or T4 the most potent form?

Back 157

T3

Front 158

HOw is thyroid hormone formed?

Back 158

Iodide trapping by follicular cells
Synthesis of thyroglobulin (TGB)
Release of TGB into colloid
Iodination of tyrosine in colloid
formation of T3 and T4 by combinding T1 and T2 together
uptake and digestion of TGB by follicle cells
secretion of T3 and T4 into blood

Front 159

What are the actions of T3 and T4?

Back 159

Responsible for our metabolic rate, protein metabolic, breakdown of fats, use of glocose for ATP production "calorigenic"

Front 160

What does calcitonin do?

Back 160

responsible for building of bone and stops bone reabsorption of bone, lowers blood Ca+2 levels

Front 161

What are the whole body effects of thyroid hormone?

Back 161

growth formation, bone maturation, maturation of CNS, ↑Na+ K+ ATPase, ↑O2 production, ↑heat production, ↑BMR, ↑glucose absorption, ↑glycogenolysis,↑gluconeogenesis, ↑lipolysis, ↑protein synthesis and degradation, ↑cardiac output

Front 162

What are the effects of thyroid hormone on calorigenic action?

Back 162

Increased O2 consuption and thus metabolism, in all tissues except: brain, testes, uterus, lymphnodes, spleen and pituitary

Front 163

What are the effects of thyroid hormones on the CNS?

Back 163

development of the CNS, reflexes, catecholamine

Front 164

How does thyroid hormone effect the heart?

Back 164

affect the type of myosin present

Front 165

What are the effects of thyroid hormone on respiration?

Back 165

increase resting respiratory rate, minute ventilation

Front 166

What are the effects of thyroid hormones on CHO metabolism?

Back 166

Increased rate of absorption from intestine

Front 167

What are the effects of thyroid hormones on cholesterol metabolism?

Back 167

lower cholesterol level in plasma

Front 168

What are the effects of thyroid hormones on growth?

Back 168

bone growth and maturation

Front 169

What is the control system for the secretion of T3 and T4?

Back 169

Negative feed back system
low blood levels of hormones stimulate the hypothalamus
Which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release TSH
TSH stimulates gland to raise blood levels

Front 170

What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism?

Back 170

Increased metabolic rate
Weight loss, increased appetite
Warm flushed skin
Weakmuscles that exhibit tremors
Hyper-reflexia
Exophthalmos (edema behind the eye balls)
Hyperactivity, insomnia
Soft smooth hair and skin
Increased iodine uptake
Almost always develops goiter

Front 171

What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism?

Back 171

Decreased metabolic rate
Weight gain, reduced appetite
Dry and cold skin
Waek, flabby skeletal muscles, sluggish
Myxedema (edema)
Apathetic, somnolent
Coarse hair, rough dry skin
Decreased iodine uptake
Possible goiter
Cretinism ( starts at birth)
mental retardation
mental slowness

Front 172

What are some causes of hyperthyroidism?

Back 172

Graves' disease (increased thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins)
Thyroid neoplasm
Excess TSH secretion
Exogenous T3 or T4

Front 173

What are some causes of hypothyroidism?

Back 173

Thyroiditis(AI or Hashimoto's Thyroiditis)
Surgery for hyperthyroidism
I deficiency
Congenital (cretinism)
Decreased TRH or TSH

Front 174

What are the TSH levels in hyperthyroidism?

Back 174

Decreased (feedback inhibition on T3 on the anterior lobe)
Increased (if defect is in the anterior lobe)

Front 175

What are the TSH levels in hypothyroidism?

Back 175

Increased (by negative feedback if primary defect is in the thyroid gland)

Front 176

What are some treatments for hyperthyroidism?

Back 176

Propylthiouracil (inhibits peroxidase enzyme and thyroid hormone synthesis)
Thyroidectomy
131I (destroys thyroid)
βAdrenergic blocking agents

Front 177

What are the treatments for hypothyroidism?

Back 177

Thyroid hormone replacement therapy

Front 178

Where are the parathyroid glands located?

Back 178

4 pea shaped glands found on the back of the thyroid gland

Front 179

What is the histological composition of the parathyroid gland?

Back 179

principal cells(chief)
Oxyphil cell

Front 180

What is produced by the principal cells?

Back 180

parathyroid hormone PTH

Front 181

What is the function of the oxyphil cells?

Back 181

unknown

Front 182

Parathyroid hormone is a major regulator of what?

Back 182

Ca+2, Mg2+, and HPO4 2-

Front 183

Parathyroid hormone raises Ca+2 blood levels which does what?

Back 183

↑ activity of osteoclasts
↑ reabsorption of Ca+2 by kidney
↑ inhibits reabsorption of phospahate
promotes formation of calcitriol (vit. D3)

Front 184

What is the effects of PTH on bones?

Back 184

stimulates osteoclasts resulting in bone reabsorption and increase of Ca+2 and HPO4 2- levels in blood

Front 185

What is PTH effects on the kidneys?

Back 185

Slows rate of Ca+2 and Mg+2 loss from the blood into the urine
Increases loss of phosphat into urine
Stimulates formation of calcitriol

Front 186

What is the effect of PTH on the GI?

Back 186

indirectly calcitriol increases intestinal absorption of Ca, Mg, phosphate

Front 187

What stimulates the secretion of PTH?

Back 187

low blood Ca+2 levels

Front 188

What is the cause of hypoparathyroidism?

Back 188

accidental removal during thyroidectomy

Front 189

What are the causes of primary hyperparathyroidism?

Back 189

a result of abnormal parathyroid function -- adenomas of the parathyroid gland (90%), hyperplasia of parathyroid idiopathic cells (9%), carcinomas (1%)

Front 190

What are the causes of secondary hyperparathyroidism?

Back 190

caused by conditions that reduce blood Ca+2 levels, such as inadequate Ca+2 in the diet, inadequate levels of vit. D, pregnancy, or lactation

Front 191

What are the symptoms of hypoparathyroidism?

Back 191

hypocalcemia, normal bone structure, increased neuromuscular excitability, tetany, laryngospasm, and death from asphyxiation can result, flaccid heart muscle, cardiac arythemia may develop, diarrhea

Front 192

What are the symptoms of hyperparathyroidism?

Back 192

Hypercalcemia or normal Ca+2 levels; calcium carbonate in kidenys, lungs, blood vessels, and gastric mucosa; bone weakness; neuromuscular system less excitable; increased force of contraction of heart muscle; constapation

Front 193

What is a major sorce of Ca in the body?

Back 193

bones

Front 194

Where in the body systems does Ca ions play roles?

Back 194

nerve and muscle cell function, blood clotting, enzyme function in many biochemical reactions

Front 195

What does elevated extracellular Ca levels do?

Back 195

prevent membrane depolarization

Front 196

What does decreased levels of extracellular Ca cause?

Back 196

spontaneous action potential generation

Front 197

What does Vitamin D stimulate?

Back 197

synthesis of Ca-binding protein in intestinal cells
Ca-ATPase to pump it out of cells into capillaries

Front 198

What does hypercalcemia cause?

Back 198

Depresses NS and neuromuscular reflexes; hyporeflexia, lethargy, decreased QT interval, constipation, loss of appetite, CAPO4 starts to precipitate

Front 199

What does hypocalcemia cause?

Back 199

NS excitement, hyperreflexia, tetany, Chvostek sign, Trousseau sign

Front 200

A person with hyperparathyroidism has what?

Back 200

stones, bones, groans

Front 201

Describe the endocrine system.

Back 201

Hormones are released into the blood stream and travel throughout the body. The results may take hours, but last longer.

Front 202

Describe the nervous system.

Back 202

Certain parts release hormones into the blood stream, the rest release neurotransmitters, to excite or inhibit the nerve, muscle and gland cells. The results happen in milliseconds, but the effects are brief.

Front 203

What are the mediator molecules in the nervous system?

Back 203

neurotransmitters

Front 204

What are the mediator molecules in the endocrine system?

Back 204

hormones

Front 205

Where is the site of mediator action in the nervous system?

Back 205

Close to the site of release of the neurotransmitter

Front 206

Where is the site of mediator action in the endocrine system?

Back 206

Far from the site of release(usually)

Front 207

What is the target of the mediator molecules in the nervous system?

Back 207

muscle

Front 208

What is the target of the mediator molecules of the endocrine system?

Back 208

any of the body cells

Front 209

What is the time of on set of the mediator molecules of the nervous system?

Back 209

typically within milliseconds

Front 210

What is the time of on set of the mediator molecules of the endocrine system?

Back 210

seconds to hours or days

Front 211

What is the duration of action of the mediator molecules of the nervous system?

Back 211

generally briefer

Front 212

What is the duration of the action of the mediator molecules of the endocrin system?

Back 212

generally longer

Front 213

What are some of the things that regulate hormone secretion?

Back 213

neuronal, hormonal, other substances, e.g. metabolites

Front 214

What type of hormones are circulating hormones?

Back 214

endocrine hormones

Front 215

What type of local hormone works on neighboring cells?

Back 215

paracrines

Front 216

What type of local hormone works on the same cells that they are secreted from?

Back 216

autocrines

Front 217

What are the types of chemical messengers?

Back 217

neural
endocrine
neuroendocrine
paracrine
autocrine

Front 218

Describe and give an example of an autocrine.

Back 218

Secreted by cells in a local area and influences the activity of the same cell type from which it was secreted. e.g. prostaglandins

Front 219

Describe and give an example of a paracrine.

Back 219

Produced by a wide variety of tissues and secreted into tissue spaces; usually has a localized effect on the other tissues. e.g. histamine, progstaglandins

Front 220

Describe and give an example of a hormone.

Back 220

Secreted into the blood by specialized cells; travels some distance to target tissues; influences specific activities. e.g. thyroxine, insulin

Front 221

Describe and give an example of a neurohormone.

Back 221

Produced by neurons and functions like hormones. e.g. oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone

Front 222

Describe and give an example of a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator.

Back 222

Produced by neurons and secreted into extracellular spaces by presynaptic nerve terminals. e.g. acetylcholine, epinephrine

Front 223

What is a pheromone?

Back 223

They are secreted into the environment and modifies the behavior of other individuals. e.g. sex pheromones

Front 224

Give an example of negative feed back in the endocrine system.

Back 224

thyroid hormones

Front 225

Give and example of positive feed back in the endocrine system

Back 225

oxytocin during uterine contractions

Front 226

In what forms are hormones transported?

Back 226

free or bound forms

Front 227

What are some lipid soluble hormones?

Back 227

steroids (aldosterone, cortisol, androgens, calcitriol, testosterone, estrogen and progesterone), thyroid hormones (T3 &T4), nitric oxide

Front 228

What are some water soluble hormones?

Back 228

amines (epinephrine and norepinephorin, melatonin, histamine, serotonin)
Peptides and proteins (all hypothalmic releasing hormones, oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone, HGH, TSH, FSH, LH, prolactin, MSH, Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide, PTH, calcitonin, gastrin, secretin, CCK, GIP, erythropoietin, Leptin)
Eicosanolds (prostoglandins, leukotrienes)

Front 229

What are the types of hormone receptors?

Back 229

membrane bound
in cytosol
in nucleus

Front 230

Do membrane bound receptors bind to lipid or water soluble hormones?

Back 230

water

Front 231

Do intracellular receptors bind to lipid or water soluble receptors?

Back 231

lipid

Front 232

What is the down regulation of hormone receptors?

Back 232

excess hormone, produces a decrease in the number of receptors

Front 233

What is the up regulation of hormone receptors?

Back 233

deficiency of hormones produces an increase in the number of receptors

Front 234

What is desensitation?

Back 234

the signaling cascade becomes exhausted

Front 235

4 ways of target cell desensitization

Back 235

sequestration
degradation
inactivation
downstream signaling inactivation

Front 236

In what forms are hormones transported?

Back 236

free or bound forms

Front 237

What are some lipid soluble hormones?

Back 237

steroids (aldosterone, cortisol, androgens, calcitriol, testosterone, estrogen and progesterone), thyroid hormones (T3 &T4), nitric oxide

Front 238

nitric oxideWhat are some water solubile hormones?

Back 238

amines (epinephrine and norepinephorin, melatonin, histamine, serotonin)
Peptides and proteins (all hypothalmic releasing hormones, oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone, HGH, TSH, FSH, LH, prolactin, MSH, Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide, PTH, calcitonin, gastrin, secretin, CCK, GIP, erythropoietin, Leptin)
Eicosanolds (prostoglandins, leukotrienes)

Front 239

What are the types of hormone receptors?

Back 239

membrane bound
in cytosol
in nucleus

Front 240

Do membrane bound receptors bind to lipid or water soluble hormones?

Back 240

water

Front 241

Lipid soluble hormones and their actions on intracellular receptors

Back 241

The receptors are proteins
When bound to hormone the receptor-hormone complex activates genes
They are slow acting because it takes time to produce mRNA
They have a longer effect

Front 242

What is the permissive effect?

Back 242

A second hormone, strengthens the effect of the first.
e.g. TH strenghtens epinephrine's effect on lipolysis

Front 243

What is the synergistic effect?

Back 243

2 hormones acting together for greater effect
e.g. Estrogen and LH are both needed for oocyte production

Front 244

What are antagonistic effects?

Back 244

2 hormones with opposite effects
e.g. insulin promotes glycongen formation and glucagon stimulates glycongen breakdown

Front 245

The pancreas contains how many types of endocrine cells?

Back 245

4

Front 246

What are the cell types in the pancreatic islets?

Back 246

alpha cells (20%) produce glucagon
beta cells (70%) produce insulin
delta cells (5%) produce somatostatin
F cells produce pancreatic polypeptide

Front 247

What are insulin's effects on glucose metabolism in muscle?

Back 247

Glucose uptake
glycogenesis

Front 248

What are insulin's effects on glucose metabolism in the liver?

Back 248

promotes liver uptake,storage and use of glucose

Front 249

Is there an effect on the brain by insulin?

Back 249

no

Front 250

What are insulin's effects on lipid metabolism?

Back 250

promotes fat synthesis and storage

Front 251

What are insulin's effects on protein metabolism?

Back 251

promotes protein synthesis
it interacts synergistically with GH

Front 252

What factors stimulate insulin secretion?

Back 252

increased glucose, increased amino acid, increased fatty acid and ketoacid concentrations, GH, GIP, vagal stimulation-acetylcholine

Front 253

What factors inhibit insulin secretion?

Back 253

decreased blood glucose, fasting, exercise

Front 254

What are glucagon's major effects??

Back 254

stimulates liver glycogenolysis
increases gluconeogenesis
stimulates lipolysis

Front 255

what are the stimulating factors for glucagon?

Back 255

fasting, decreased glucose [ ], increased aa [ ], CCK, acetylcholine

Front 256

What are some inhibiting factors for glucagon?

Back 256

insulin, somatostatin, increased fatty acid and ketoacid [ ]

Front 257

Where is insulin's target tissues?

Back 257

liver, adipose, muscle

Front 258

Where is glucagon's target tissue?

Back 258

liver

Front 259

somatostatin inhibits what?

Back 259

glucagon and insulin

Front 260

What is diabetes mellitus?

Back 260

results from inadequate secretion of insulin or inability of tissues to respond to insulin

Front 261

What is the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus?

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type I = insulin dependent
type II = non insulin dependent

Front 262

What are eicosanoids?

Back 262

local hormones released by all body cells

Front 263

what are the 2 borad families of eicosanoids?

Back 263

leukotrienes
prostoglandins

Front 264

What are the major role of prostaglandins E and F series?

Back 264

control of vascular smooth muscle activity

Front 265

What is prostacyclins/PGI effect?

Back 265

potent inhibitors of platelet aggregation

Front 266

What does thromboxanes do?

Back 266

regulates the changes in cellular shape needed for platelet aggregation

Front 267

What are the effects of leukotrienes?

Back 267

potent vasoconstrictors
increases vascular permeability
induce inflammation or allergic responses

Front 268

What is an important role of th thymus gland?

Back 268

hormones produced here promote proliferation and maturation of T cells

Front 269

What hormones are produced in the GI tract?

Back 269

gastrin, glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP), secreetin, CCK

Front 270

What hormones are produced by the placenta?

Back 270

hCG, estrogen, progesterone, hCS

Front 271

What hormones are produced by the kidneys?

Back 271

renin, erythropoietin (EOP), calcitriol

Front 272

What hormones are produced by the heart?

Back 272

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

Front 273

What hormone is produced by the adipose tissue?

Back 273

leptin

Front 274

What are some growth factors?

Back 274

epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), nerve growth factor (NGF), tumor angiogenesis factors (TAFs), transforming growth factors (TGFs)