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116 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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the property of languages of having different ways of expressing the same meaning
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internal variation
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many different types of language variation--any form of language characterized by systematic features
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language variety
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the study of the interrelationships of language varieties and social structure
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sociolinguistics
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any variety of a language spoken by a group of people that is characterized by systematic differences from other varieties of the same language in terms of structural or lexical features (every person has a slightly different one)
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dialect
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systematic phonological variation (everyone has one)
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accent
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the form of language spoken by one person
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idiolect
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has to do with stylistic choices in vocabulary (usually less formal. in every language all years)
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slang
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neutral everyday language, slightly informal (fridge, TV)
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common slang
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specialized, of a particular group at a particular time
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in-group slang
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technical language (hardware, strikeout)
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jargon
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if speakers of one language variety can understand speakers of another language variety and vice versa, these varieties are mutually intelligible and dialects of the same language
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mutual intelligibility
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in a large number of contiguous dialects, each dialect is closely related to the next but the dialects on either end of the continuum are mutually unintelligible
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dialect continuum
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a group of people speaking the same dialect
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speech community
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not based on linguistic structure, ie, region, SES, age, sex, ethnicity
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extralinguistic factors
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results when a group of speakers forms a coherent speech community relatively isolated from speakers outside that community
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communicative isolation
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variations in speech based on factors such as topic, setting, and addressee, and normally described in terms of degrees of formality
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speech styles
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different levels of speech formality (formal register, etc.)
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registers
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automatically adjusting from one speech style to another
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style shifting
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complex and idealized--the variety used by political leaders, the media, and high SES people
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standard dialect
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(not linguistically inferior)
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nonstandard dialects
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the people that use the standard dialect make it have this
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prestige
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standard by which we make judgments of right and wrong
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prescriptive standard
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the act of producing nonstandard forms by way of false analogy
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hypercorrection
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the standard dialect in US (idealization)
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Standard American English (SAE)
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having a mastery of two dialects
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bidialectal speakers
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defines how people should speak in order to gain status in the wider community
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overt prestige
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to belong to a certain group
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covert prestige
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different ways to pronounce phonemes
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functions (differences in sound distribution = phonological variation. not having two consonants start a word, for example)
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not always needing a pronoun or a possessive, for example
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morphological variation
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different words exist, but are combined in different ways in different dialects (she done already told you)
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syntactic variation
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using different words to describe the same thing (pop, soda)
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lexical variation
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based on geographic boundaries--England and US
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regional variation
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people who study regional dialects
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dialectologists
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the boundaries of areas where a particular linguistic form is used
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isoglosses
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when many isoglosses surround the same region or separate the same group of speakers
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bundle of isoglosses
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explanation for US regional dialects
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the founder principle
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analyzing language at a specific point in time
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synchronially
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"across-time" analysis
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diachronic
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concerned with what kinds of language changes occur and why or why not
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historical linguistics
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"mother language," common ancestor of all languages, evolved because of geographical and social boundaries
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Proto-Indo-European (protolanguage)
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humans have same word apparatus, onomatopeias, language borrowing, genetic language connection
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languages are similar
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assumes that speech sounds change in regular, recognizable ways (the regularity hypothesis) and that because of this, phonological similarities among languages may be due to a genetic relationship among those languages (the relatedness hypothesis)
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family tree theory
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used to deduce which language is parent
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comparative method
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recognizes the gradual spread of change throughout a dialect or language--different rates, some overlapping
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wave theory (Schmidt)
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when all of one phoneme changes to another in every associated word
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regular
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sounds change regardless of their environment in a word
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unconditioned sound change
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sound changes because of the influence of a neighboring sound
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conditioned sound change
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one sound becomes more like another sound
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assimilation
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two similar sounds become less like one another
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dissimilation
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when a sound is no longer pronounced
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deletion
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when a sound is added to the pronunciation of a word
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insertion
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change from a dipthong to a monopthong
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monopthongization
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opposite of monopthongization--simple vowel to complex one
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dipthongization
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change in the order of sounds
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metathesis
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changes in the height of the tongue in the production of sounds
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raising and lowering
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alterations in the frontness or backness of the tongue in the production of sounds
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backing and fronting (phonetic changes only affect pronunciation but sill have same phoneme)
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sound change that changes the phonemic system (plus or minus a phoneme)
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phoneme change (create additional allophones or separate phonemes)
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four part proportion such as rhyme:rhymed::climb:climbed
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proportional analogy
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clomb-->climbed
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analogical change
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set of inflectionally related forms
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paradigm
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eliminates irregularity among morphologically related forms
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paradigm leveling
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worker:work::burgler:burgle (driving force = misanalysis)
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back formation
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like garden snake for garter snake. obscure meaning. close pronunciation
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folk etymology
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NATO, radar
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acronyms
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smog from smoke and fog, brunch
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blends
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exam, dorm, taxi
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clipping
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words created out of thin air
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coinages
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new words created by shifting parts of speech: laugh, run, bug (verb to noun)
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conversions
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words named for people connected with them (Ohm for George Simon Ohm)
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eponyms
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changes in the order of subject, object, etc.
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syntactic change
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objects a word refers to
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referents
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change in meaning
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semantic change
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referents or contexts for a word increase (nuke-from nuclear bomb to damage or destroy)
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extensions
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like broadcast or nuke in a microwave
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metaphorical extension
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when the set of appropriate contexts or referents for a word decreases (worm used to apply to all crawlers)
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reduction
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when a word takes on grander connotations over time (squire, knight)
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elevations
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opposite of elevations, more pejorative meaning over time (lust, wench, silly)
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degradations
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analysis of data from a single language in order to make hypotheses about that language's history
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internal reconstruction
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systematic comparison of multiple related languages in order to make hypotheses about the common protolanguage they descended from
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comparative reconstruction
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alternate pronunciations for the same morpheme [wi:fas] to [wivas]
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morphological alternation (sound correspondences can lead to the discovery of a protolanguage)
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the way in which people think
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linguistic classification
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users of markedly different grammars are pointed by the grammars toward different types of observations and different evaluations of externally similar acts of observation and hence are not equivalent as observers but must arrive at somewhat different view of the world
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linguistic relativity (Whorf hypothesis)
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language determines thought and culture--people are confined by their language to only understand or think about concepts that their language can describe (differences in colors, directions of arrows)
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linguistic determinism
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graphic marks to represent linguistic utterances
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writing
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symbols for words
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iopographic (lopographic?)
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pictures for words
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pictographic
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ideas for words
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ideographic
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representing sounds
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phonetic
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symbols for syllables
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syllabic
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symbols for sounds (phonemes)
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alphabetic
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which languages can be written alphabetically?
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all because they all have consonants and vowels
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known symbols are borrowed to represent new words with the same sounds regardless of what these symbols originally mean
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Rebus principle
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event-related potentials
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ERP
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functional magnetic resonance imaging
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fMRI
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identify stimuli as words or nonwords
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lexical decision tasks
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words are pronounced, more frequent words are pronounced more quickly than are less frequent words
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naming tasks
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participants are presented with a stimulus, the prime, right before the stimulus of interest, the target
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priming
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ex. read an ambiguous question and ask a question of how the sentence...
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sentence processing
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uncover what happens during a process and when during the process it happens
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online task
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eye movements are recoded to determine what they're looking at
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eye-tracking
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participants read a sentence in small chunks (one word at a time). push a button to move to next word
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self-paced reading
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use of machine to produce human-like speech
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speech synthesis
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piecing together smaller recorded units of speech
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canned speech
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"speech" created from scratch
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synthesized speech
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how well listeners can recognize and understand the individual sound or words generated by the synthesis system
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intelligibility
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how much the synthesized speech sounds like the speech of an actual person
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naturalness
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a synthesis technique that generates speech "from scratch" based on computational models of the shape of human vocal tract
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articulatory synthesis
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claims that there are two independent parts to the production of speech sounds
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source-filter theory
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some mechanism that creates a basic sound
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source
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shapes the sound created by the source into different sounds we recognize
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filter
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most commonly used speech synthesis technology today, creating natural-sounding speech
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concatenative synthesis
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take large samples of speech and build a database of smaller units from speech samples
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unit selection synthesis
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create utterances from prerecorded words and phrases that closely match the words and phrases that will be synthesized
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domain-specific synthesis
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speech is generated directly from text entered w/ normal orthography (spelling)
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text-to-speech synthesis
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list correct pronunciation of words that do not follow rules
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exceptions dictionary
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can be pronounced in two or more ways, though spelled one way
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heteronyms
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