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18 Cards in this Set
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Define or Identify
restrictive vs. non-restrictive clauses |
~~Relative clauses
~~A relative clause is a clause which describes the referent of a head noun or pronoun. It often restricts the reference of the head noun or pronoun. A relative clause is not necessarily a constituent of the noun phrase containing the head noun it modifies. The plumber arrived who we had called earlier. (Who we had called earlier has been extraposed from its normal position after plumber and is not a member of the noun phrase containing plumber.) English examples The man who went Passengers leaving on Flight 738 ~~RELATED relative clause nonrestrictive relative clause ~~Restrictive vs. nonrestrictive relative clauses ~~A restrictive relative clause is a relative clause that helps to identify the referent of the word that it modifies. In some languages, a restrictive relative clause is formally marked. In English The man that you see Generic A restrictive relative clause is a kind of * What is a relative clause? ~~RELATED relative clause nonrestrictive relative clause ~~Nonrestrictive relative clauses ~~ A nonrestrictive relative clause is a relative clause that does not aid in the identification of the referent of its head noun, but only provides information about it. In some languages, a restrictive relative clause is formally marked. A nonrestrictive relative clause is formally distinguished in some languages. In English John, who passed the test, was elated. ~~RELATED relative clause restrictive relative clause |
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Define or Identify:
Broca's Aphasia |
affects language production more than language comprehension
Inability to plan the motor sequences used in speech or sign owing to damage to Broca’s area of the brain. Labored speech, word-finding difficulties, problems with syntax rules and function words (det, prep, auxiliary verbs, etc.), difficulty understanding complex sentences Typically can understand and use open-class words, but difficulty with constructing comprehensible sentences. Lose capacity to apply infloectinal morephemse so that number and tense and verbal aspect may disappear from speech The drop function words like prepositions and articles from their sentences Lose access to most closed-class morphemes or words (CArroll 1999) Some times invert terms:”Dirt dig shovel.” Can understand SVO sentences—can rely on who/what acts upon who/what because of the order, whereas more complex sentences, such as “Susan was hit by a bicycle last night” depends heavily on syntax for meaning. Affects writing (and signing) abilities the same as speech. RELATED Broca’s Area region of the brain located at the base of the motor cortex in the left hemisphere. Related Wernicke's Aphasia ------- Roman Jakobson: “Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Aphasic Disturbances” argues that these two kinds of aphasia demonstrate the separateness of the two functions in langage: selection and combination |
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Define or Identify:
hyponym |
Property of two words such that the set of things denoted by one word is a subset of the set of things denoted by the other word.
is relationship of a subordinate member of a set. RELATED hypernym A more general term: a word whose denotation always includes the set of things denoted by some hyponym mean, or above or excessive “Dog” is a hypernym and “Dalmatian” is a hyponym. hyponym A more specific term: a word whose denotation always includes the set of things by some hypernym. “Dog” is a general term, and “terriers” are hyponym (hypodermic needle) under (subordinate set). |
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Define or Identify:
gradable antonyms |
(semantics) A term that denotes one end of a scale while the other term denotes the other end
such as long and short. aka. Polar Antonyms ANTONYMONY There are 3 different kinds of opposites: (how can people come up with opposites for colors, like gold? Silver? But we do it. We have a sense of what an opposite is, that it has a meaning, that we can fit all sorts of things.) 1. SCALAR OR GRADABLE. You have a scale and it can be anywhere on it (ex. Hot and cold). You can know that it is a gradable antonym because an item can be both Hot and cold depending on the circumstance. Like be a tall person, but a short basketball player. 2. COMPLIMENTARY ANTONYMS. Are nongradable if you are on the opposite end of conceptual poles and cannot conceptually be both at the same time. Ex. Can’t be alive and dead and the same time. Married or single.. In Language Files, they call them MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE SETS. 3. CONVERSES are not really antonyms, but we put them there anyway. Have to do with differing, possibly opposite roles in a mutual relationship. ex. teacher and student. Can be both and also have a certain relationship. Lend and borrow. Can’t borrow something if there are no lenders. 4. (in Language Files, get one more) REVERSES Are often seen as opposite. A relationship of some sort of motion or change in which the one item undoes the other. Ex. Forward backward put together take apart ascend and descend. |
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Define or Identify:
recursion |
Property of languages allowing for the repeated application of a rule, yielding infinitely long sentences or an infinite number of sentences.
recursion**** people mistake it by thinking it’s happening over and over. BUT in linguistics, in a phrase structure rule (REWRITE RULE – rewrite term on left as term on right): NP --> Det --> N (the rewrite rules are how you generate complex structure from a simple structure) PP --> P + NP and a NP --> N + (PP) so recursion is when you have something on left side that can also occur on the right side) AN ELEMENT CAN CONTAIN A COPY OF ITSELF *************** The Chomsky article "RECURSION IS THE FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTIC OF HUMAN LANGUAGE"—need to learn more about recursion. It happens in other forms—DNA – contains recursive structures. OTHER SPECIES MAY HAVE RECURSION OPERATING in parts of their systems. |
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Define or Identify:
phrasal verb |
A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition or adverb that modifies or changes the meaning; 'give up' is a phrasal verb that means 'stop doing' something, which is very different from 'give'. The word or words that modify a verb in this manner can also go under the name particle.
Phrasal verbs can be divided into groups: Intransitive verbs These don't take an object They had an argument, but they've made up now. Inseparable verbs The object must come after the particle. They are looking after their grandchildren. Separable verbs With some separable verbs, the object must come between the verb and the particle: The quality of their work sets them apart from their rivals. In our phrasal verb dictionary, we classify these as Separable [obligatory] With some separable verbs, the object can before or after the particle, though when a pronoun is used it comes before the particle: Turn the TV off. Turn off the TV. Turn it off. |
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Define or Identify:
rule ordering |
6. Why is phonological rule ordering important?
Rule ordering determines whether or not certain phonological processes can occur. Sometimes independently needed rules interact such that one rule has to apply to the output of another in order to correctly account for the ultimate phonetic output. ENGLISH “VELAR FRONTING”: Vowels on either side of a velar affect the pronunciation of the velar. In / V___V, if the vowels conflict, the following one “wins”. One way to handle this is first to assimilate to a preceding vowel, then to a following vowel. If the vowels differ in frontness, the second round of assimilation “fixes” the direction of assimilation. We use /k/ to illustrate, but the same applies to /g/. Here are eight proposals that have been aired in linguistics about how the rules might be ordered. Total Ordering: there is a unique first rules a unique second ..... a unique last rule. Every derivation applies the rules in this order. Partial Ordering: there is a unique first rule, but thereafter at every stage of a derivation there are two rules which are candidates for application: the rule which was just applied and the (unique) next different rule. Semi Ordering: the rules are given a total ordering, but different derivations may start at different places in the ordering and choose any "later" rule as the next rule to be applied. Semi Partial Ordering: the rules are given a partial ordering, but different derivations may start at different places in the ordering and choose either the last-applied rule or else any "later" rule as the next rule to be applied. Unorderings: any derivation can apply the rules in any order, subject only to the constraint that once a rule has been applied in a derivation, it is no longer eligible for application at a later stage of that derivation. Quasi Ordering: any derivation can apply the rules in any order, subject only to the constraint that once a rule has been applied in a derivation, the only other time it may be applied in that derivation is to its own output. Random Ordering: there is no order imposed on the rules; any derivation can apply the rules in any order. Simultaneous Application: the entire set of rules is applied to an input "all at once"; this prevents some of the rules from creating or destroying part of the input in such a way as to affect the applicability of other rules. Advocates of one or another of these rule orderings have adopted the G-view, and feel that the rule ordering restrictions they desire will directly lessen the psychological task of learning the correct grammar. The arguments for this conclusion are canvassed and found to be inconclusive (at best). The present paper adopts the L-view and, consequently, investigates the issue of generative power of the various theories of rule orderings. |
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Define or Identify:
isogloss |
An isogloss is the geographical boundary marking the limit of the regional distribution of a particular word, pronunciation, and usage.
Lines on map indicating boundary between a linguistic the use and nonuse of a particular linguistic featurevariable. Like Pail vs. Bucket. If look at a typical map, find that they intersect all over the place. But sometimes, you see a bunching together in an area that shows a delineation of varieties/dialects. BUT All of these isoglosses are artificial. There are no lines in the real world. The reality is always more dirty. Layers, subdialects… Pg 147 map that show vowel difference for aw.ah. Notice how the west has lost that distinction and the thin little band. Also, there are often TRANSITIONAL Zones, where variants coexists—so different speakers might use different variants, or individual speakers may use both . Are more common than isoglosses; isoglosses are useful in indicating the outer boundaries of regional usage patterns, but the must be used with important qualificaionts. They often represent the ideal rather than real patterns of delimitation, “Aconvenient fiction existing in an abstract moment of time” (CARVER 1987) ~~RELATED bundle of isoglosses ~~Bundle of Isoglosses ~~ A set of isoglosses that cluster together and serve to set apart dialect areas on a map. like the use of pail and bucket in the 1930s and 40s. Shows the distribution of a dialect form, but not always cut and dry. In the south, there are pockets of usage for pail in Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia. When the overall responses to all questionnaires are considered, different isoglosses may show similar patterns of delimitation. These clusters, are usually considered significant in determining regional dialect areas. For example, pail vs. bucket is considered along with those for whiffletree, teeter/teeterboard, and stone boat…. PAGE 143 pg 142 Isoglosses. Lines on map to capture boundary between a linguistic variable. Like Pail vs. Bucket. If look at a typical map, find that they intersect all over the place. But sometimes, you see a bunching together in an area that shows a delineation of varieties/dialects. BUT All of these isoglosses are artificial. There are no lines in the real world. The reality is always more dirty. Layers, subdialects… |
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Define or Identify:
suprasegmental features |
A phonetic characteristic of speech sounds, such as length, intonation, tone, or stress, that "rides on top of" segmental features. Must usually be identified by comparison to the same feature on other sounds or strings of sounds.
A phonetic characteristic of speech sounds, such as length, intonation, tone, or stress, that “rides on top of” segmental features. Must usually be identified by comparison to the same feature on other sounds or strings of sounds. They are features above the segmental values such as place or manner or articulation (like consonants and vowels) Spoken language has suprasegmental resources to depend on (intonation and rhythm). They are actual something inside the language proper (physical). “prosodic” comes from poetry, where it refers to the metrical structure of verse one of the essential characteristics of poetry is the placement of stress on particular syllables, which define the versification of the poem. length speech sounds that are identical in their place or manner features may differ in length (DURATION) Tense vowels are slightly longer than lax vowels but only by a few milliseconds) in some languages, like Japanese, if the vowel is prolonged to around twice its normal length, it can make a difference between words Japanese, Finnish, and Italian, have long consonants that my contrast words. page 252 in English, changing these lengths does not changes the word—only emphasizes it, like “puleeeeeze.” pitch pitch depends on how fast the vocal cords vibrate the faster they vibrate, the higher the pitch if a larynx is small, like women and children, the shorter volcal cords vibrate faster and the pitch is higher. pitch changes may affect meaning within Tone Languages stress (or accent) certain syllables in a word are louder, slightly higher in pitch, and somewhat longer in duration than other syllables in the word stress can change the meaning of a word in English (the part of speech) digest as a noun = DIgest digest as a verb = digest English is a Stressed-timed language in general, at least one syllable is stressed in and English Word they are stressed syllables French is “Syllable-timed” language syllables have approximately the same loudness, length, and pitch Tone and Intonation TONE languages when you vary pitch within a word it changes meaning more than half the world’s languages are tone languages. 2 types of tone register tone if the pitch is level across the syllable contour tone if the pitch changes across the syllable, whether from high to low or vice versa Thai has 3 level and two contour tones commonly, tone languages will have two r three register tones and possibly one or two contour tones. in a tone language, it is not absolute pitch that is important, but the relations among the pitches of different syllables thus, men, women, and children with differently pitched voices can still communicate in a tone language tone languages generally have a LEXICAL FUNCTION tones make a difference between words some languages tones may also have a GRAMMATICAL function Edo spoken in Midwestern Nigeria the tone on monosyllabic verbs followed by direct objects indicates the tense and transitivity of the verb. low tone means present tense, transitive high tone means past tense, transitive in many tonal languages, we find a continual lowering of the absolute pitch on the tones throughout the utterance. but the relative pitch remains the same DOWNDRIFT the lowering of the pitch ??? INTONATION Languages |
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Define or Identify:
Ferdinand de Saussure |
(1815-1913)
A Swiss linguist, specializing in the Indo-European family. Course in General Linguistics was compiled from notes by students. The book was the foundation for the concept of language as composed of signs encoding opposite meanings, which is the basic framework of linguistic analysis. One of his prime concepts was noting the difference between the signifier and the signified the sequences of sounds in the word “dog” + the concept of the four-legged canine the linguistic sign, dog said that the relationship between the word “dog” and the physical thing is arbitrary; that is, there is no inherent relation between the signifier (the sound of a word) and the signified (its meaning) However, the relationship of linguistic signs to each other is systematic LANGUE this system of interrelated signs that make of language the underlying abstract system of language: the signs and their relationships language as an abstract communal grammar (how we might think of it in our heads, as it’s conceived by all of us) PAROLE refers toe the actual speech that speakers produce based on this system; the way that an individual will produce language (including mistakes, switches of dialect, code-switching) Really was trying to stress that the study of language should be different from the study phonetics and production of sound—that is, the performance (PAROLE) was different from what grammar (LANGUE) produces Known for his hypothesis that all of the Indo-European languages had a trio of laryngeal consonants now extinct in all its descendants but deducible via tracing back from certain particularities of cognates in the languages. The discovery of documents in the extinct Indo-European language Hittite proved his theory correct. Related Terms: signifier is the linguistic form (the string of sounds) signified is the concept (real world or abstract) to which the signifier refers sign the relationship of the signifier and the signified create the linguistic sign—what we might think of as a meaningful word. arbitrariness evidence for this arbitrariness: different languages employ different sequences of sounds to refer to the same concept; or even in the same language, two different strings of sound can refer to the same concept: peach pit and peach stone. EXCEPTION to arbitrariness: onomatopoetic words meow or plop but are a small subset of the lexicon and differ from language to language langue parole Noam Chomsky argues a different way to understand the systematicity of language linguistic competence refers to the speaker’s knowledge of the grammatical rules that govern his or her language linguistic performance the speaker’s realization of these rules in his speech. generative linguistics school examining linguistic competence—the mental rules that explain our ability to construct grammatical utterances one core principle: a language’s grammar allows the creation of infinite number of grammatical utterances from a finite number of elements. NOAM CHOMSKY vs. Sociolinguists Chomsky is interested in the “langue” part (COMPETENCE) sociolinguists are interested in the “parole” part (PERFORMANCE); how people actually speak reflects hierarchy and reality of the world. |
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Define or Identify:
hyponymy |
Property of two words such that the set of things denoted by one word is a subset of the set of things denoted by the other word.
subordinate member of a set. Hyponym “Dog” is a general term, and “terriers” are hyponym (hyppdermic needle) under (subordinate set). Hypernym (mean, or above or excessive) “Dog” is a hypernym and “Dalmatian” is a hyponym. |
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Define or Identify:
Cooperative Principle |
Make your conversational contribution such as is required. at the stage at which it occurs by accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
Paraphrased: Individuals act in accordance to their goals. (every time you listen to someone, you are assessing their goals: why did this person saying that?) Implication: Speakers and hearers are constantly involved in interpreting each other’s goals. (it’s funny when you start asking these questions in everyday conversations) Four Categories of linguistic cooperation. QUANTITY 1. An agent will do as much as is required for the achievement of the current goal. 2. An agent will not do more than is required to achieve that goal. (optimal amount of effort to communicate what we need) (keep in the back of you mind: Is this a good thing to say about everybody???) QUALITY Agents will not deceive co-agents. Consequently, an agent will try to make any assertion one that is true. Agents will not say that for which they lack adequate evidence. RELATION An agent’s action will be relevant to and relative to an intention of the agent. MANNER Agents will make their action perspicuous (CLEAR) to others who share a joint intention. 1. Agents will not disguise actions from co-agents . Consequently, agents will not speak obscurely in attempting to communicate. 2. Agents will act so that intentions they intend to communicate are unambiguously reconstructible. 3. Agents will spend no more energy on actions than is necessary. 4. Agents will execute sub-parts of a plan in an order that will maximize the perceived likelihood of achieving the goal. So these are what’s are always governing speakers. for example: “An agent will do as much as is required for the achievement of the current goal.” If I want you to understand me, I do want you to pick up my goals. WHAT HAPPENS WHEN BEHAVIOR APPEARS NOT TO CONFORM TO THE MAXIMS? Maxims can be: ignored quietly violated may be in conflict with one another. The first two cases lead to misleading the hear. (ex. lie). (need to have quality in order to have lies. The existence of lies shows that we have operate on this principle). The third case is often signaled by the speaker. I am not liberty to say any more (QUANTITY I] |
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Define or Identify:
Proto Indo-European |
The Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans. From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became certain enough to establish its relationship to PIE. Using the method of internal reconstruction an earlier stage, called Pre-Proto-Indo-European, has been proposed.
PIE was an inflected language, in which the grammatical relationships between words were signaled through inflectional morphemes (usually endings). The roots of PIE are basic morphemes carrying a lexical meaning. By addition of suffixes, they form stems, and by addition of desinences (usually endings), these form grammatically inflected words (nouns or verbs). The hypothetical Indo-European verb system is complex and, like the noun, exhibits a system of ablaut. Sound changes Main article: Indo-European sound laws As the Proto-Indo-European language broke up, its sound system diverged as well, changing according to various sound laws evidenced in the daughter languages. Notable cases of such sound laws include Grimm's law in Proto-Germanic, loss of prevocalic *p- in Proto-Celtic, loss of intervocalic *s- in Proto-Greek, Brugmann's law in Proto-Indo-Iranian, as well as satemization (discussed above). Grassmann's law and Bartholomae's law may or may not have operated at the common Indo-European stage. Comparison of conjugations The following table presents a comparison of conjugations of the thematic present indicative of the verbal root *bʰer- of the English verb to bear and its reflexes in various early attested IE languages and their modern descendants or relatives, showing that all languages had in the early stage an inflectional verb system Proto-Indo-European (*bʰer- 'to carry') I (1st. Sg.) *bʰéroh₂ You (2nd. Sg.) *bʰéresi He/She/It (3rd. Sg.) *bʰéreti We (1st. Du.) *bʰérowos You (2nd. Du.) *bʰéreth₁es They (3rd. Du.) *bʰéretes We (1st. Pl.) *bʰéromos You (2nd. Pl.) *bʰérete They (3rd. Pl.) *bʰéronti While similarities are still visible between the modern descendants and relatives of these ancient languages, the differences have increased over time. Some IE languages have moved from synthetic verb systems to largely periphrastic systems. The pronouns of periphrastic forms are in brackets when they appear. Some of these verbs have undergone a change in meaning as well. * In Modern Irish beir usually only carries the meaning to bear in the sense of bearing a child, its common meanings are to catch, grab. * The Hindi verb bharnā, the continuation of the Sanskrit verb, can have a variety of meanings, but the most common is "to fill". The forms given in the table, although etymologically derived from the present indicative, now have the meaning of subjunctive. The present indicative is conjugated periphrastically, using a participle (etymologically the Sanskrit present participle bharant-) and an auxiliary: maiṃ bhartā hūṃ, tū bhartā hai, vah bhartā hai, ham bharte haiṃ, tum bharte ho, ve bharte haiṃ (masculine forms). * German is not directly descended from Gothic, but the Gothic forms are a close approximation of what the early West Germanic forms of c. 400 AD would have looked like. The cognate of Germanic beranan (English bear) survives in German only in the compound gebären, meaning "bear (a child)". * The Latin verb ferre is irregular, and not a good representative of a normal thematic verb. In French, the irregular Latin verb ferre "to carry" has been supplanted by other verbs and ferre only survives in compounds such as souffrir "to suffer" (from Latin sub- and ferre) and conferer "to confer" (from Latin "con-" and "ferre). * In Modern Greek, phero φέρω (modern transliteration fero) "to bear" is still used but only in specific contexts not in everyday language. The form that is (very) common today is pherno φέρνω (modern transliteration ferno) meaning "to bring". Additionally, the perfective form of pherno (used for the subjunctive voice and also for the future tense) is also phero. * In Modern Russian брать (brat) carries the meaning to take. Бремя (bremia) means burden, as something heavy to bear, and derivative беременность (beremennost) means pregnancy. |
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Define or Identify:
mass nouns |
a noun whose referents are not thought of as separate entities.
It may have distinguishing features such as the following: • The inability to take a plural form • Cooccurrence with some determiners (such as some and much), but not others (such as the English many) Some nouns may permit treatment as either count or mass nouns. In English, salad may be treated as either a count or mass noun, as evidenced by the acceptability of the following expressions: many salads much salad The word furniture is a mass noun. It cannot take the plural suffix -s: * furnitures In addition, it can occur with some determiners, but not others: the furniture much furniture some furniture * a furniture * many furnitures Source: Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik 1985 246 |
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Define or Identify:
paradigm leveling |
A type of morphological change in which irregular members of a paradigm become regulated through analogy.
Paradigm leveling is simply analogical change that makes the members of a paradigm look more like one another. It”s then a case of regularization within a paradigm. A set of forms having a common root or stem, of which one form must be selected in certain grammatical environments. The set of substitutional relationships a linguistic unit has with other units in a specific context. Paradigm leveling is an interesting case of analogical change that makes a system more regular. Longer example for Latin Latin had a bunch of case endings such as accusative (object) and genetive (possessive) suffixes that went on the end of words. So, the nominative root honos “honor” was honos-is in the genitive and honos-em in the accusative. What”s important is that the root was always the same and then the suffix was added. The paradigm was perfectly regular. Because Latin underwent a rule of sound change in which at a later stage of Latin, [s] became [r] when it showed up between vowels. So, what happens when we add the genetive suffix -is to the root honos? We created a context in which the final [s] of the root is between two vowels, and so the suffixed form is realized as [honor-is], and NOT as [honos-is]. Likewise, when we add the accusative suffix [-em], the whole result shows up as [honor-em] and NOT [honos-em]. Why? Well, once again, our /s/ is between two vowels and so it becomes an [r]. This whole scenario results in the following picture: BEFORE the s-> r rule AFTER the s->r rule honos “nominative” honos “nominative” honos-is “genitive” honor-is “genitive” honos-em “accusative” honor-em “accusative” The big deal is that after the "s-becomes-r-between-vowels rule" introduced its sound change in Latin, the Latin root meaning “honor” is no longer the same throughout the paradigm. Sometimes it ends with an /s/, and other times it ends with an /r/. ******At this point, the concept of paradigm leveling comes into play. The sound /s/ in the nominative form [honos] looks around it and says, "hey, in all the other forms I”m an /r/. I”d better regularize myself here as well and become an /r/ also." This resulted in the following change: AFTER PARADIGM LEVELING honor “nominative” honor-is “genetive” honor-em “accusative” As you can see, on analogy with the other forms in the paradigm, the final sound in the nominative changed to /r/, even though it did not appear between vowels. It simply did so in order to make the root regular throughout the paradigm itself. |
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Define or Identify:
babbling stage |
Sounds produced in the first few months after birth that gradually come to include only sounds that occur in the language of the household. Deaf children babble with hand gestures.
A phase in child language acquisition during which the child produces meaningless sequences of consonants and vowels. Generally begins around the age of six months. |
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Define or Identify:
suprasegmental features |
A phonetic characteristic of speech sounds, such as length, intonation, tone, or stress, that “rides on top of” segmental features. Must usually be identified by comparison to the same feature on other sounds or strings of sounds.
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Define or Identify:
spoonerisms |
Production error in which the first sounds of two separate words are switched.
Slips of the tongue Reverend William A. Spooner famous for producing a lot of them: Instead of “You have missed all my history lectures” he said, “You have hissed all my mystery lectures.” “Nobel sons of toil” “Noble tons of soil” 1960’s Victoria Framkin studied. Reveal manner in which sentences are created in speech. For instance, in Reverend spooners’ slips, there is a tendency to exchange the initial consonants of words in the utterance. Reveals that in order to make these mistakes/exchanges, the entire sentence would have to be planned out before the person beings to say it—otherwise, how would “hissed” and “history” have been exchanged? Framkin also noticed that speech errors also often involve “mixing and matching” morphemese within words: Intended: “Rules of word formation” Produced “Words of rule formation” (note how the inflection “s” stays in position) Intended: “I’d forgotten about that.” (suffixes moved, while stems remained the same) Produced: “I’d forgot aboutten that” Also provide evidence that the morpheme rather than the word is the fundamental building block of English sentence construction. ~~RELATED field technique analysis of slips of the tongues in the real world, because you can’t plan for them. |
