Ling 202 Final Exam

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analogy

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a historical process which projects a generalization from one set of expressions to another. these types of changes involve relations of similarity

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immediate/horizontal/syntagmatic analogy

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terms likely to occur in sequential form in discourse

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non-immediate/vertical/paradigmatic analogy

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terms never occur in the same place-mutually exclusive

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analogical leveling

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reduces the number of allomorphs a form has; it makes paradigms more uniform (ex: throw/threw/thrown being replaced with throw/throwed/throwed)

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analogical extension

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extends the already existing alternation of some pattern to new forms which did not formerly undergo the alternation (ex: 'dived' being replaced by 'dove')

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recutting/metanalysis

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involves a change in the structural analysis, in the interpretation of which phonological material goes with which morpheme in a word or construction

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backformation

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when a word is assumed to have a morphological composition which it did not originally have, usually a root plus affixes, so that when the affixes are removed, a new modified root is created, as when children say "can i have a chee?" thinking that this is the singular form of cheese.

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folk etymology

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cases where linguistic imagination finds meaningful associations in the linguistic forms which were not originally there and, on the basis of these new associations, either the original form ends up being changes somewhat or new forms based on it are created

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must have evidence for conditioning environments; can't have unconditioned sound changes

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what is a key assumption of internal reconstruction to even be able to apply it?

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alloset

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complementary distribution across languages or within a language

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morphology

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the study of the makeup of words

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allomorphy

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morphemes that vary in sound but not meaning (ex: -ez, -s, -is)

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morphophonology

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branch of linguistics that studies the phonological structure of morphemes, the combinations of phonic modifications of morphemes which happens when they are combined, and the alternative series which serve a morphological function.

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morphophoneme

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the phonemes or strings of phonemes that constitute the various allomorphs of a morpheme

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morphologization

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the creation of a bound morpheme out of an independent word....the syntactic collocation of a particular word class, such as a noun, with a particular type of clitic

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grammaticalization

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when a lexical word loses its lexical meaning and starts to fulfill a more grammatical function

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phonetic reduction

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reduction of fuller forms to phonologically shorter ones

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semantic bleaching

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a word losing a sense of semantic meaning

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amalgamation

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forms that formerly were composed of more than one free-standing word get bound together in a single word during this process

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double-marking

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'children'>child-ER-EN; that book OF martha'S

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suppletion

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when a "word" has two or more unrelated and contextually-dependent forms--you use distinct lexical items and use them for the same meaning, and you distribute them across the grammatical contexts (ex: "am" vs. "was, go" vs. "went")

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replacement

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ex: english "darn" instead of "damn" or "fudge" instead of "FUCK"

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shared aberrancies

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shared, arbitrary alternations likely ancestral patterns

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analogy

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perceived presence of traits between the source and the target

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cognates

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related forms across languages

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analogs

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ex: english 'plurals' /-z/ and -en

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archaisms

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characteristic of the language of the past, a vestige, which survives chiefly in specialized uses. commonly preserved in proverbs, folk poetry, folk ballads, etc.

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internal reconstruction

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used to determin earlier forms of a single language. it studies a single language's earlier form

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cliticization

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free word>phonologically found word

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speech community

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community whose speakers use the same linguistic code or codes

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speech network

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all the individuals that a given person interacts with on a regular basis

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dialectology

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study of regional (geographically-determined) dialects

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dialects

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distinctive speech of a regional speech community

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isoglosses

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boundaries of areas with different linguistic forms

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diglossia

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a high language/dialect versus a low language/dialect

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digraphia

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two or more writing or orthographic systems, one associated with a high language/dialect, the other with a low language/dialect

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rural dichotomy

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relatively more numberous/intense contacts with people on a daily basis

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urban dichotomy

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relatively few/superficial contacts with people on a daily basis

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sociolect

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distinctive speech of a social group

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sociolinguistic markers

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variables that show statistically significant variation along the lines of social variables (age, class, status, gender, race or ethinicity, occupation, etc.) but are not absolute

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post-vocalic /r/

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a clear social marker of class

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polylectal/multilingual speech communities

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some speakers may switch from one code to another during the course of a conversation

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code-switching

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an index of relative social relationships

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standard language or dialect

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the norm that is regularized through official processes and promoted (sometimes exclusively) as the language of official uses (gov, law, education)

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vernacular language

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non-standard varieties of the same language

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family tree model

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traditional model of language diversification that attempts to show how languages diversify and how language families are classified

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wave diffusion model

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assumes that language change is the result of differential spread or diffusion of innovations throughout space

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Gravity/hierarchial model

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spread of merger from urban areas to rural areas--associated with northern cities and sophisitication

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Contra-hierarchial model

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from rural areas to suburban to urban areas

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polylectal speech communities

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two or more dialects of a language can influence each other through their normal contact

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amplifiers of change

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cities, upwardly mobile classes, loose social networks (interaction with many people, but briefer and less frequent), status (leaders), gender

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barriers of change

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rural, less mobile classes, dense social networks in a population (interaction with few people who are close kind and peers, longer and more frequent), status, gender