Liddell's Glossary Of Terms Ap Language

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ALLEGORY

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device using character and/or story elements to represent abstraction in addition to literal meaning. An author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

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PARALLELISM

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Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another." It also refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as preposition or verbal phrase. A famous example of parallelism begins Charles Dickens's novel, "A Tale of Two Cities": "It was the best of times it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity..." The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.

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PARODY

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A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. As comedy, parody distorts or exaggerates distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weakness in the original. Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don't require knowledge of the original.

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PEDANTIC

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An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.

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METONYMY

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A term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name", metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. A news release that claims "the White House declared" rather than "the President declared" is using metonymy. The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact.

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MOOD

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This term has two distinct technical meanings in English writing. The first meaning is grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker's attitude. The indicative mood is used only for factual sentences. For example, "Joe eats too quickly." The subjunctive mood is used to express conditions contrary to fact. For example, "If I were you, I'd get another job." The imperative mood is used for commands. For example, "Shut the door!" The second meaning of mood is literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. In this usage, mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.

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NARRATIVE

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The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

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COLLOQUIAL
COLLOQUIALISM

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The use of slang or information in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms gives a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

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COHERENCE

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A principle demanding that the parts on any composition be arranged so that the meaning of the whole may be immediately lear and intelligible. Words, phrases, clauses within the sentence; and sentences, paragraphs, and chapters in larger pieces of writing are the units that, by their progressive and logical arrangement, make for coherence.

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CONCEIT

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A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the usual comparison being made.

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CONNOTATION

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The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations way involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

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DENOTATION

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The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color.

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ONOMATOPOEIA

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A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.

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OXYMORON

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From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness." This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay.Take note of the effect which the author achieves with this term.

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PARADOX

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A statement that appears to be a self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. Macbeth.

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alliteration

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The repetiton of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells sea shells"). Although the trem is not used frequently in the multiple-chioce section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unifyideas,supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

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allusion

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A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth,place,or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possiblities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.

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ambiguity

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The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintenional, of a word, phrase, sentence,or passage.

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analogy

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A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.

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Point of View

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-In Literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view and many subdivisions within those. (1) the first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun "I," and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a participant (character in a secondary role), or an observer (a character who merely watches the action). (2) the third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronoun "he," "she," and "it." There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: omniscient and limited omniscient. In the "third person omniscient" point of view, the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters. This all-knowing narrator can reveal what each character feels and thinks at any given moment. The :third person limited omniscient" point of view, as its name implies, presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all remaining characters. This definition applies in question in the multiple-choice section. However, on the essay portion of the exam, the "point of view" carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze the author's point of view,the appropriate point for you to address is the author's attitude. [For a through discussion of point of view, see Story and Structure, the text used by the seniors. In fact, you would be wise to get a copy of it from the thrift store because the introductory sections are wonderful discussions of how literature works.]

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Rhetoric

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-From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

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transition

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A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A few commonly used transitional words or phrases are: furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly, and on the contrary. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition.

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understatement

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The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole.

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undertone

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An attitude that may lie under the ostensible tone of the piece. Under a cheery surface, for example, a work may have threatening undertones. William Blake's "The Chimney Sweeper" from the Songs of Innocence has a grim undertone.

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wit

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In modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous, while suggesting the speaker's verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement. Historically, wit originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally (in the early 17th century), it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an answer that demanded the same quick perception.

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periodic sentence

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A sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. For example: "Ecstatic with my AP score, I let out a loud, joyful shout!" The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than a loose sentence.

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personification

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A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader

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Diction

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Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can compliment the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style.

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Didactic

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From the Greek, "didactic" literally means "teaching." Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

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Euphemism

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From the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse" is an example of euphemism.

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Exposition

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In essays, one of the four chief types of composition, the others being argumentation, description, and narration, the purpose of exposition is to explain something. In drama, the exposition is the introductory material, which creates the tone, gives the setting, and introduces the characters and conflict.

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Extended Metaphor

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A metaphor developed at great length, occuring frequently in or throughout a work.

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Figurative Language

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Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is ususally meant to be imaginative and vivid.

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Figure of Speech

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A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, similie, synecdoche, and understatement.

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Generic Conventions

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This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an auto biography and political writing. On the AP Language Exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writers work from those dictated by convention.

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Anaphora

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one of the devices of repetition, in which the same expression (word or words) is repeated at the beginning of Two or more lines, clauses, or sentences. e.g. "It was the best of times; it was the worst of times."

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Anecdote

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A short narrative detailing particulars of an interesting episode or event. The term most frequently refers to an incident in the life of a person.

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Antecedent

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The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.

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Antecedent

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The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.

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Aphorism

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A terse statement of known authorship which express a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.

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Apostrophe

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A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, " Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee."

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Atmosphere

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The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary word, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood. (?)

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Clause

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A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element to the other. You should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.

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Genre

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The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry and drama. Howerver, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into ficiton (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tradegy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP exam, expect the majority of the passages be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.

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Homily

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This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

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Hyperbole

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A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony.

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Imagery

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The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory imagery. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may represent visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection (It is the highest flower on the Great Chain of Being). An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In aaddition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP exam, pay attention to HOW an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.

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Rhetorical Modes (general)

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Describes variety, conventions, and purpose of major writing. There are four common modes and purposes.
Also called 'modes of discourse.'

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Rhetorical Mode - Exposition

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First of four common rhetorical modes explaining the variety, conventions, and purposes of major kinds of writing.

1) Exposition
- Explains and analyzes information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and discussion.

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Rhetorical Mode - Argumentation

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Second of four common rhetorical modes explaining the variety, conventions, and purposes of major kinds of writing.

2) Argumentation
- Proves the validity of an idea or point of view by present sound reasoning, discussion, and an argument to convince the reader.

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Rhetorical Mode - Description

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Third of four common rhetorical modes explaining the variety, conventions, and purposes of major kinds of writing.

3) Description
- Re-creates, invents, or visually presents a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture what is being described. Often encompasses all five senses.

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Rhetorical Mode - Narration

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Fourth of four common rhetorical modes explaining the variety, conventions, and purposes of major kinds of writing.

4) Narration
- Tells a story or series of events. Often uses tools of descriptive writing.

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Sarcasm

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Bitter, caustic language intended to hurt or ridicule someone or something.

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Satire

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A work that targets human vices, follies, or social institutions and conventions so as to ridicule them or encourage reform. Also used as a style of writing. Often includes irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm.

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Semantics

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The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

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Predicate Adjective

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One type of subject complement- an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective clauses that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject.

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Predicate Nominative

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a second type of subject complement- a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence.

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Prose

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one of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms. In prose the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the line.

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Repetition

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The duplication, of either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

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Theme

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The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers to life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional words, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly stated, especially in expository or arguementative writing.

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Thesis

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In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentance or group of sentances that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately ,effectively, and throughly a writer has proved the thesis.

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Tone

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Similar to mood, tone describes the author's attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken lanuage than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in indentifying an author's tone. Some words describing tone are playful,serious,businesslike, sarcastic, humorous,formal,sardonic, and somber.

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STYLE

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The consideration of style has two purposes:
1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors' styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author (or a writer emulating that authors' style). Compare for example, Jonathan Swift to George Orwell or William Faulkner to Ernest Hemingway. We can analyze and describe an authors' personal style and make judgements on how appropriate it is to the authors' purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, or laconic, to name a few examples.
2) Classification of author's to a group and comparison of an author to a similar author. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author's style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement,
such as the romantic, transcendental or realist movement.

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SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

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The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clauses that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it or (2) describing it. The former is technically a predicate nominative, the latter a predicate adjective. Multiple- choice questions.

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Subordinate Clause

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Like all clauses this word group contains both a subject and a verb, but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it doesn't express a complete thought

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syllogism

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from the Greek for "reckoning together" a syllogism is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises: major and minor. This inevitably leads to a sound conclusion.
ex: major: all men are mortal
minor: Socrates is a man.
A Syllogism's conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea first (Socrates) and the general second (all men).

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Symbol/ Symbolism

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Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete: an objest, action, character, or scene; that represents something more abstract.

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syntax

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the way an author chooses to join words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.