Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
216 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What type of tissue is blood?
|
Connective tissue
|
|
|
What protein is responsible for osmotic pressure?
|
Albumen
|
|
|
What protein is responsible for immunity?
|
Antibodies (immunoglobulin)
|
|
|
What would be the immunoglobulin in body secretion?
|
IgA
|
|
|
What immunoglobulin would be the first to rise in titer? (primary response)
|
IgM
|
|
|
What is the immunoglobulin in secondary response?
|
IgG
|
|
|
If you were coming down with the flu which immunoglobulin would rise first?
|
IgM
|
|
|
Which immunity would be important if you had a viral infection?
|
Hemoral immunity
|
|
|
Which immunity would be important if you had a parasitic infection or a transplant? What does this tell you about this type of immunity?
|
-Cell mediated
-The larger the structure, the more likely it is cell mediated |
|
|
Various forms of immunodeficiency disorders associated with the retrovirus (different forms of lymphoma) are usually due to a problem with which lymphocyte?
|
Helper T cells
|
|
|
What type of immunity is formed if given an antitoxin
|
Passive
|
|
|
What type of immunity is formed if given mother's milk
|
Passive
|
|
|
What type of immunity is formed if given a vaccine
|
Active
|
|
|
What is released mostly by basophils and what does it increase?
|
Histamines which increase vascular permeability
|
|
|
Which WBC counters the activities of the basophil and what does it increase?
|
Eosinophil which increases an allergic response
|
|
|
Inflammatory responses are what type of immunity?
|
Nonspecific
|
|
|
What type of antigen does blood type A, B, AB, O have?
|
A = 'B' antigen
B = 'A' antigen AB = no antigen O = 'A' + 'B' antigen |
|
|
If the blood agglutinates from Anti-A serum, which blood type do you have
|
blood type A
|
|
|
If the blood agglutinates from Anti-B serum, which blood type do you have
|
blood type B
|
|
|
If the blood agglutinates from Anti-Rh serum, which blood type do you have
|
Positive blood
|
|
|
Which WBC would rise most rapidly in the presence of abscesses
|
Neutrophils
|
|
|
What type of immunity would probably be affected if the thymus was damaged early in life?
|
Cell mediated
|
|
|
What is you blood type determined by?
|
Antigen on the surface of the cell
|
|
|
What type of cell would have MHC I?
|
normal nucleated body cells
|
|
|
MHC II includes what cells?
|
WBC, dendritic cell, antigen presenting cell, macrophage, and T-helper cell
|
|
|
What is complement 1? what is it's function?
|
Opsonization: enhancing phagocytosis of antigens
|
|
|
What is complement 2? what is it's function?
|
Chemotaxis: attracting macrophages and neutrophils
|
|
|
What is complement 3? what is it's function?
|
Cell lysis: rupturing membranes of foreign cells
|
|
|
What is complement 4?
|
Clumping of antigen0bearing agents
|
|
|
Can the antigen/antibody complex lead to opsonization
|
Yes
|
|
|
What can complement 3 also lead to?
|
opsinization, inflammation, increase vascular permeability, and activation of the complement 5-9 which causes the porphyrin holes in infected cell’s membrane
|
|
|
Could agglutination lead to precipitation? How?
|
Yes; if you bind antigens to antibodies, they may become large enough that they precipitate out
|
|
|
What region is at the end of the heavy and light chain of an antibody?
|
Variable region
|
|
|
What can bind at the variable region at the end of the heavy/light chain of an antibody?
|
Specific antigen which it must bind with or an antigen that is similar enough to it so that it can bind with it
|
|
|
What type of cell is a natural killer cell? What type of immunity is it? What is it responsible for?
|
-Lymphocyte
-Nonspecific immunity -Responsible for immunosurveillance |
|
|
What has been removed from the plasma to make it a serum?
|
The clotting factor
|
|
|
What produces heparin? What does heparin do?
|
Mast cells: Reduces blood or platelet activity and therefore prevents coagulation
|
|
|
What does mast cells produce?
|
Histamine and heparin
|
|
|
What marks a cell so that it is easily detected by phagocytes?
|
Opsin
|
|
|
What is another name for an immunoglobulin?
|
Antibody
|
|
|
What is the most common WBC?
|
Neutrophils
|
|
|
What WBC has multisegmented nuclei
|
Neutrophils
|
|
|
What organ is lymphoidal?
|
Spleen
|
|
|
Where are the lymphoidal nodules found in the intestine?
|
Peyer's patch
|
|
|
Where are the lymphoidal nodules found in the pharynx?
|
Tonsils
|
|
|
The spleen has in capsule areas of both what and what?
|
Red pulp hemopoetic tissue and white pulp
|
|
|
What does severe liver disorder cause?
|
Jaundice
|
|
|
What are reticulocytes?
|
immature RBC
|
|
|
Is it normal to have reticulocytes in circulation?
|
Yes
|
|
|
What does an elevated count in reticulocytes mean?
|
blood loss
|
|
|
If blood flow to the kidney was constricted what would the kidney do that would affect the viscosity of the blood?
|
Release of erythropoietin, due to the low oxygen level from the constriction, which causes erythropoiesis to occur in the bone marrow
|
|
|
How could the release of renin affect the blood viscosity
|
Renin would cause the retention of sodium which would make the blood volume go up
|
|
|
Why would living in a highly elevated area cause a person to have polycythemia?
|
Low levels of oxygen, hypoxia/hypoxemia, causes the increase of hematocrit
|
|
|
What is hypoxemia
|
Decrease oxygen in the blood
|
|
|
Would someone with leucopenia go and challenge every infectious person to come close?
|
No due to low numbers of lymphocytes
|
|
|
People who have hemophilia are usually having problems with what factors?
|
clotting factor 8, most common factor that is damaged
|
|
|
What type of pathway is clotting factor 8?
|
Intrinsic clotting pathway
|
|
|
What is one of the most important clotting factor of the extrinsic pathway?
|
Clotting factor 7
|
|
|
Tissue damage usually results in clotting because of what?
|
Activation of the extrinsic pathway
|
|
|
What could b12 and folic acid deficiency cause?
|
Anemia
|
|
|
What happens to the blood cells if there is a b12 and folic acid deficiency?
|
they become very large as a megacytic or megablastic anemia
|
|
|
What type of anemia is characterized by pale cells that are ordinarily small?
|
Iron deficiency, microcytic anemia
|
|
|
What could damage to the bone marrow cause?
|
Anemia
|
|
|
How is the production of RBC effected by too much exposure to radiation
|
Could destroy the cells in the marrow and prevent hemopoiesis
|
|
|
What is aplastic anemia
|
Lowered cell counts of all three blood cell types
|
|
|
Could anemia be caused by hemorrhaging?
|
Yes
|
|
|
What is found at the center of a porphyrin ring in hemoglobin? in plants? in other animals?
|
Hemo: Iron
Plants: Mg Other: Copper |
|
|
What characteristic is given to blood when iron binds to oxygen
|
it becomes red
|
|
|
How many porphyrin rings are there in hemoglobin
|
4
|
|
|
How many amino acid chains are there in hemoglobin?
|
4 (2 alpha + 2 betas) (could be 2 thetas, but usually betas)
|
|
|
What is a Thrombocyte
|
Platelet
|
|
|
What does megakaryocytes produce?
|
platelets
|
|
|
What is the grandparent stem cell for all blood cells
|
Hemacytoplast
|
|
|
What organ is usually captures old cells and is more friable and less compliant?
|
Spleen
|
|
|
What does the spleen do to the broken down erythrocyte before it is sent to the liver
|
Separates into heme and then into iron, bilirubin and biliverdin
|
|
|
The bilirubin and biliverdin that leaves the spleen is conjugated or unconjugated?
|
unconjugated
|
|
|
Is bilirubin and biliverdin soluble in the plasma? How is it transported?
|
Not soluble, can only be transported in the plasma bound to proteins
|
|
|
Is the bilirubin and biliverdin that is bound to the proteins easily filtered by the kidney? Why?
|
No, too large and can not leave the blood
|
|
|
What can bilirubin and biliverdin accumulation in the blood cause?
|
Jaundice
|
|
|
What does the liver do to the bilirubin and biliverdin?
|
Conjugates it and makes it soluble
|
|
|
Are erythrocytes biconvex or biconcaved?
|
biconcaved
|
|
|
What is the diameter of the erythrocytes at the thinnest part
|
0.8um
|
|
|
Erythrocytes live a long time and are very active because of the abundance of mitochondria
|
False, no mitochondria and they eject the nucleus
|
|
|
If fibrin soluble in the blood plasma?
|
No
|
|
|
What is the function if fibrinogen?
|
Carries fibrin in the blood plasma so that it doesnt initiate a clot
|
|
|
What is the function of thrombin
|
Catalyses the fibrinogen to become fibrin
|
|
|
A typical blood pressure is 120/80, How would you find the pulse pressure and what is the pulse pressure?
|
Difference better systolic and diastolic pressure
-40 |
|
|
Why is it better to have low blood pressure vs high blood pressure
|
High blood pressure will damage the endothelial lining, tearing it up which leads to plaque build up
|
|
|
How do you calculate the arterial pressure?
|
1/3 pulse pressure + diastolic pressure
|
|
|
Systemic edema is caused by which heart probably failing? why?
|
Right heart because it's backing up to the body
|
|
|
If the left heart was failing, where would the edema be? What type of edema would it cause?
|
In the lungs
Pulmonary edema |
|
|
What is another name for a heart attack
|
myocardio infarction
|
|
|
Where would you rather have the occlusion occur that cause you heart attack? L. or R. coronary? Why?
|
Right bc it is smaller which means better chance of survival
|
|
|
If there was a blockage in the left coronary, would you rather it be in the left circumflex or the left anterior descending? Why not the other?
|
-Ant. descending bc it is smaller and just goes down the septum which means more likely to have shortness of breath
-Circumflex = probable death |
|
|
Where would you expect to find the fenestrated capillaries
|
Small intestine
|
|
|
Where would you find continuous capillaries
|
skeletal muscles
|
|
|
What probably has the msot rapid effect in regulating blood pressure?
|
vasoconstriction
|
|
|
What would have to happen to the blood vessels in order to lower the blood pressure
|
Dilate the blood vessels
|
|
|
What arteries would the vessels that have the biggest impact on blood pressure?
|
Muscular arteries; include arterials
|
|
|
What would you chronically need to have an elevated systolic/diastolic above in order to have hypertension?
|
Sys: 140+
Dia: 90+ |
|
|
When you are in a prone position, is your blood pressure high or low
|
low blood pressure
|
|
|
If you immediately stand up, in order to get the blood to the brain, what mus the arterial diameters do?
|
Constrict to offer more resistant and raise the pressure which accelerate the blood to the brain
|
|
|
Can a myocardio infarction lead to an arrhythmia?
|
yes
|
|
|
Is ventricular fibrillation or atrial fibrillation more important to have?
|
Ventricular because it is pumping the blood to the body
|
|
|
Why does the blood general go from the atria to the ventricle
|
due to pressure
|
|
|
Describe the communication between the SA and AV node if there is a partial heart block
|
Delayed, when it reaches the AV node, the SA node has generated a second p-wave; 2 p-waves for every QRS; 2:1 block
|
|
|
Does having angina that you are having a heart attack?
|
No; if you have a heart attack, you merely have ischemia which means the heart is short of oxygen but isn’t dead
|
|
|
Would the sedimentation rate go up just because of ischemia?
|
No; erythrocyte sedimentation rate usually go up due to damage tissue and inflammation
|
|
|
Where would you have your blood pressure receptors located so that it could be monitored by the nervous system?
|
Carotid sinus and aortic arch
|
|
|
What 2 cranial nerve are responsible for receiving the information from the blood pressure receptors?
|
Vagus and glossopharyngeal
|
|
|
What part of the brain is responsible for regulating heart rate
|
Medulla oblongata
|
|
|
What is responsible for venous return to the heart?
|
Skeletal and thoracic pump
|
|
|
What other system restores blood volume besides the venous system? How?
|
Lymphatic; blood leaves the circulatory system > interstitial space > reclaimed by venous system because of the osmotic pressure generated by albumen
|
|
|
How many liters of fluids is claimed by the lymphatic a day
|
3-4L/day
|
|
|
The blood flow at the capillary bed is regulated by what 2 forces?
|
Hydrostatic pressure primarily of the plasma and the osmotic pressure of the plasma
|
|
|
Why do we not need to worry about the hydrostatic and osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid
|
The fluids doesn't collect and can go into the lymphatics and the proteins can drain into the lymphatic
|
|
|
What are the 2 of Starling’s forces
|
Hydrostatic and osmotic forces
|
|
|
What does frank starlings principle say?
|
Increased venous return is matched by increased cardiac output
|
|
|
Describe how frank starling's principle works
|
if more blood comes back to the heart, the ventricle stretches which increases the contraction, and therefore ejects a higher fraction of blood, stroke volume goes up, cardiac output goes up
|
|
|
Can an athlete have the same cardiac output as a couch potato but still have a slower heart rate? Why?
|
Yes due to larger stroke volume
|
|
|
What is the formula for stroke volume
|
EDV (end diastolic volume) – ESV (end systolic volume)
|
|
|
When the blood leaves the heart, it moves into what kind of arteries first?
|
Elastic arteries which then divide into muscular arteries
|
|
|
If the heart is stimulated by the vagus, what happens to the heart rate? Why?
|
Decreases; vagus is parasympathetic which hyperpolarizes the pace maker cell
|
|
|
If you severe the vagus nerve, what would happen to heart rate? Why?
|
Increase HR because the vagus always has the heart inhibited
|
|
|
What is the vagus inhibiting that keeps the heart rate low
|
The pace maker cells which causes the heart to beat at 100bpm
|
|
|
What does T-wave represent in an ECG
|
Ventricular repolarization
|
|
|
What does P-wave represent in an ECG
|
Atrial contractions
|
|
|
What does QRS represent in an ECG
|
Ventricular depolarization particularly the Q-wave going to R is the depolarizing of the septum down to the apex of the heart so we can contract from the apex and drive the blood out
|
|
|
What is The first heart sound is due to
|
Closure of the AV valves
|
|
|
What is The third heart sound is due
|
filling of the ventricles and the turbulence generated by it
|
|
|
What creates the second heart sound
|
Closure of the semilunars
|
|
|
What is the term given the point at which all the valves in the heart is shut at the same time due to equal pressure
|
Isovolumia
-2 types: ventricular relaxation and ventricular contraction |
|
|
Can edema be due to heart failure
|
Yes
|
|
|
Can edema be due to lymphatic blockage
|
Yes
|
|
|
Can edema be Due to poor venous return?
|
Yes
|
|
|
Can edema be due to liver damage? Why?
|
Yes; liver is not producing enough albumen = osmotic pressure generated by the albumen is low
|
|
|
When the ventricle is in systole which valve will shut? Which opens?
|
AV shuts and semilunar opens
|
|
|
In order for blood to go back to the heart, the atria must be in what stage
|
Diastole
|
|
|
If you are exhaling air form your lung, how does that affect venous return of blood to the heart?
|
Decrease bc exhaling is raising pressure in your chest to drive the air out, therefore blood cant return either
|
|
|
venous pressure in the arm was around what
|
40-45mmHg
|
|
|
What is the general range of venous pressure? What does it depend on?
|
20-90mmHg depending on part of body, lower leg = higher due to hydrostatic pressure of blood pulling
|
|
|
What does a 3:1 blockage mean?
|
complete blockage, no conduction between atria and ventricle
|
|
|
What is the Pathway of electrical impulses
|
SA node > Bachmann’s bundle > AV node > Bundle of his/AV bundle > right and left bundle branches > Purkinje fibers
|
|
|
What are the channels in the heart muscles that permit the influx of sodium and calcium, and efflux of potassium all at the same time?
|
Funny channel
|
|
|
What is flooding into the cytoplasm of a cardiac muscle to cause the plateau in the action potential
|
Calcium
|
|
|
Will the flooding of calcium into the cytoplasm of a cardiac muscle cause the action potential to be short or long?
|
Long; as long as the muscle twitch
|
|
|
Can you stimulate the heart muscle with another action potential during its contraction twitch cycle?
|
No; one stimulus per twitch therefore
|
|
|
What affects the resistance to blood flow?
|
-Viscosity: higher viscosity = more resist
-Diameter of vessel, constrict vessel = more resist -Length of vessel, longer = greater resistance |
|
|
What happens when you put on a pound of fat?
|
more vessels = more resistance = higher blood pressure
|
|
|
How could the flow be affected by smooth vs rough
|
rough = cause turbulence =, the nature of the flow is disrupted.
Smooth lamina flow is easier to circulate |
|
|
You can increase blood flow by increasing the potential difference, What is generating that potential difference
|
The heart
|
|
|
What vessels are nutrient rich?
|
Portal vessels
|
|
|
What vessels are oxygen rich?
|
Pulmonary veins and arteries of the heart
|
|
|
You find valves in what structure?
|
Veins, lymphatic vessels, and the heart
|
|
|
Baroreceptors tells you that the blood pressure is low or high by doing what?
|
Low: Firing fewer action potentials
High: fires more rapidly = generate more action potential |
|
|
The blood plasma is primarily what?
|
Water
The plasma is around 55% and 45% hematocrit |
|
|
What is a buffy layer?
|
WBC, in middle of centrifuge, lighter than RBC but heavier than the plasma
|
|
|
Which vein does not return to the vena cava directly
|
Left gonadal vein
|
|
|
Where is the zygos vein and where does The azygos vein carries blood up to
|
-Back of the heart
-Sup. Vena cava |
|
|
The abdominal aorta bifurcates to form what?
|
Common iliac
|
|
|
What blood vessel travels up the transverse foramen and feeds the posterior brain
|
Vertebral
|
|
|
What vessels form the circle of willis
|
Post/Ant cerebral, Post/Ant communicating
|
|
|
Which of the following are ramifications of the internal carotid?
|
Middle and anterior cerebral are continuations of the internal carotid
|
|
|
What would be the name of the femoral artery as it passes behind the knee
|
Popliteal
|
|
|
What carries blood to the glomurulos?
|
Afferent arterioles
|
|
|
The rH system of blood typing was discovered in
|
1940
|
|
|
What is the rH for? What is the antigen used to represent it?
|
-Rhesus factors
-D-antigen |
|
|
What is the third most common blood type in the world generally?
|
B
|
|
|
What is the rarest blood type?
|
AB
|
|
|
Most common blood type
|
O+
|
|
|
What happens if a person with type A donated a pint of blood to a person with type O
|
one will be dead, a major histocompatibility has happened
|
|
|
What happens if a person with type O donated a pint of blood to a person with type A blood
|
both go home happy, a minor histompatibility has happened
|
|
|
What are the 3 PMN?
|
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
|
|
|
How are the 3 PMN often classified?
|
by their age, the immature and mature ones
|
|
|
what is the usually word used to describe their age based on the shape of the nucleus
|
Juvenile, Stab, Segmented. (neutrophil)
|
|
|
counting WBC on the slides (blood smears) and figured out the percentages of neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils, you established what?
|
Differential white cell count
|
|
|
How do you count WBC the old way using a hemocytometer
|
count blood cells by dilution; then count the number of WBC on a slide with a grid that allowed you to count the number of cells per grid + dilution factor = number of cells/mL
|
|
|
Eosinophils
|
WBC that was primarily responsible for detoxifying the blood by removing things like heparin histamine
|
|
|
Monocytes
|
largest of the WBC that provides nonspecific defenses
|
|
|
Monocytes commonly increase in things like what
|
carbon tetrachloride poisoning
|
|
|
Myeloblasts
|
stem cell for all the granulocytes
|
|
|
If a person has Thrombocytopenia, what are they prone to?
|
easy bleeding and easy bruising
|
|
|
What is Relative polycythemia
|
illusion of more cells, but cell numbers haven’t increased, fluids have decreased. Relative to fluid volume you have polycythemia
|
|
|
When checking blood pressure, you extend the arm to expose what artery?
|
Brachial
|
|
|
The First sound you hear when checking blood pressure is the sound of who? What type of pressure?
|
korotkoff, systolic pressure
|
|
|
When the first sound fades when you are checking the blood pressure When the sound faded out, the second sound is the sound of who? What type of pressure?
|
korotkoff, diastolic
|
|
|
EKG with biopack, set up your 3 leads both wrist and left ankle to form what?
|
einthoven’s triangle
|
|
|
What is Poiseuille’s law
|
Blood flow is inversely proportional to the resistance. Raise resistance, flow goes down, and vice versa.
|
|
|
Where would listen for the mitral valve sound?
|
Apex of the heart by the left nipple, by 4-5th intercostals space
|
|
|
where would you hear the tricuspid valve
|
4-5th intercostals space on either side of the sternum
|
|
|
Where would you hear the semilunar valve
|
near the sternum, left and right around the 2nd intercostals space
|
|
|
When doing an EKG, what is another name for an isoelectric line
|
Flat line or base line
|
|
|
What is an Isoelectric line
|
a line without any deflection
|
|
|
During an EKG Is the first deflection positive or negative? What type of wave is it?
|
Positive and it is a P-wave
|
|
|
what does it mean to have a long P-R interval
|
potential block
|
|
|
what would happen to the segment when you increase your heart rate.
|
Heart rate increases therefore intervals are shorter and the segments are shorter
|
|
|
What does the P-R segment represent on the EKG?
|
Interval between arterial depolarization and ventricular depolarization
|
|
|
Looking at an ECG, and if you wanted to figure out Heart rate, what interval would you look for?
|
R to R interval
|
|
|
If the R-R, 1 R and then 25mm to the next R and 25mm to the next are after that, what is the heart rate?
|
60bpm (25mm = 1 sec)
|
|
|
What would you call platelets, red erythrocytes, leukocytes in the blood
|
Formed elements
|
|
|
What is secondary polycythemia
|
caused by hypoxia which raise hematocrit
|
|
|
Anoxemia
|
no oxygen in your blood vessels
|
|
|
If you hold your breath, what happens to the venous return to the heart?
|
decreases
|
|
|
If you exercise, what happens to the intervals between the P waves, QRS and T waves?
|
They shorten
|
|
|
When you added pilocarpine to the heart, did it beat faster or slower?
|
Slower, simulates the effects of the parasympathetic nerve
|
|
|
When you counted the cells in blood, we used a hemocytometer, and you used which grid for the WBC?
|
W-Grids with 64 boxes
|
|
|
When you counted the cells in blood, we used a hemocytometer, and you used which grid for the RBC?
|
R-grid with 80 boxes
|
|
|
When you took the pulse, which pulse was more reliable, radial or carotid
|
Carotid
|
|
|
formula for cardiac output
|
HR x stroke volume
|
|
|
If you are a couch potato, stroke volume would go down, what needs to happen to keep your cardiac output
|
raise heart rate
|
|
|
Direct vs indirect immunoassay
|
Dir: looking for the actual antigen
In: looking for the antibody |
|
|
How would you know if you have a false positive
|
If my negative control gave a positive result = contamination, meaning positive controls have to be retested
|
|
|
Why is direct immunoassay more accurate?
|
if you see antigen, they have the pathogen; if indirect they had to be able to make antibodies. If no antibodies are made they are still negative
|
|
|
What is seroconversion?
|
Tested negative bc you haven’t made antibodies and then test positive bc now you made antibodies for that pathogen
|
|
|
Average Stroke volume
|
70mL
|
|
|
What happens if the heart was given Atropine
|
blocks effect of the neurotransmitter Acetylcholine = blocking vagus inhibition = heart rate will be faster
|
