Learning

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learning

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Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential as a result of practice or experience.

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Understanding Classical Conditioning

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Classical conditioning is a fundamental way that animals, including humans, learn new responses. Classical conditioning involves learning reflexive, involuntary responses to stimuli that do not normally cause such responses. Using Pavlov's classic research studies of salivation in dogs, students are introduced to classical conditioning, where an initially neutral stimulus that does not normally cause any particular reflex or emotional response is paired with another stimulus that does cause such a response. After several pairings, this previously neutral stimulus (NS) will cause the response to occur. Each stimulus and response is named according to its cause or consequence. The neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the stimulus that causes the reflex or emotional response. The reflex or emotional response is known as the unconditioned response (UCR). When the neutral stimulus begins to cause the response on its own, it is then referred to as the conditioned stimulus (CS). The response caused by the conditioned stimulus is then referred to as the conditioned response (CR).

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Little Albert

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The story of Little Albert shows students how fears and phobias can be explained through classical conditioning. The fears would be called conditioned emotional responses (CERs). Higher order conditioning, where a neutral stimulus is paired with a second conditioned stimulus (CS) that already causes a learned or conditioned response, explains many emotions and attitudes.

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Principles of Classical Conditioning

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The principles of CC include stimulus generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery. Generalization occurs when stimuli similar to the original CS elicits the CR. Discrimination occurs when only the CS elicits the CR. When the UCS is repeatedly withheld and the previous association between the CS and the UCS is broken, extinction occurs. When a CR that had been extinguished spontaneously reappears, it is known as spontaneous recovery.

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Classical Conditioning in Real Life

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Prejudices, phobias, medical treatments, and advertising influences are all cited as examples of classical conditioning.

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Operant Conditioning

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A second type of conditioning is called operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning, and is based on the consequences of an organism’s behavior. Behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and diminished if followed by punishment.

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Understanding Operant Conditioning

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Operant conditioning was originally investigated by Edward Thorndike and later by B. F. Skinner and occurs when people or animals learn by the consequences of their responses. These consequences may consist of either reinforcement or punishment.

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Principles of Operant Conditioning

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Reinforcement is anything that is likely to cause an increase in the response. Primary reinforcers satisfy an unlearned biological need and secondary reinforcers have learned value. Punishment is anything that is likely to cause a decrease in the response. Positive reinforcement occurs when something is added to increase the response rate. Negative reinforcement, which is different from punishment, occurs when something is removed in order to increase the response rate.

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Schedules of reinforcement

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There are several kinds of schedules of reinforcement. Continuous schedules reinforce each response. Partial schedules reinforce some but not all responses. The major types of partial reinforcement schedules are fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval,and variable interval. Shaping is the process of teaching a person or an animal a complex task by reinforcing successive approximations to a desired response.

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Punishment

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There are also two kinds of punishment, positive and negative. Positive punishment occurs when something is given to decrease the response rate. Negative punishment consists of removing something to decrease the response rate. It is helpful here to think in mathematical terms – positive (add) and negative (take away). Punishment has several serious side effects including increased aggression as well as learned helplessness.

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Principles of punishment and reinforcement

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In order to use reinforcement and punishment effectively, it is advisable to keep the following principles in mind: (1) Feedback: Provide clear and immediate feedback when the subject makes the desired response; (2) Timing: Apply reinforcers or punishers as soon as possible after the response is made; (3) Consistency: Be consistent in applying both reinforcers and punishers; and (4) Order of Presentation: Be sure to reinforce or punish after the target behavior has been exhibited.

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Glossary

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As with classical conditioning, operant conditioning uses the following terms: stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery. Generalization occurs when the subject responds to an environmental cue that is similar to the cue to which the subject has been conditioned. Extinction occurs when the original source of learning is removed. Spontaneous recovery occurs when a previously extinguished response spontaneously returns. The difficulty in extinguishing a response is directly related to the schedule of reinforcement being used to strengthen the response.

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Operant Conditioning in Real Life

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Operant conditioning principles have numerous real life applications. To control high blood pressure and anxiety, some researchers use biofeedback, a procedure in which people's biological functions are monitored and made known to them so they can learn to control these functions. Professional athletes and others may exhibit superstitious behavior because of accidental reinforcement.

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Active Learning/Critical Thinking:

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Using Learning Principles to Succeed in College. Students are presented with a learning activity and asked to apply what they have learned about the principles of learning to their college experience.

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Cognitive-Social Learning

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Cognitive-social psychologists are interested in the mental processes that lead to learned behavior.

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Insight and Latent Learning

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Wolfgang Kohler, working with chimpanzees, demonstrated that learning could occur with a sudden flash of insight. Edward Tolman demonstrated latent learning, which is learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and remains hidden until it is needed.

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Observational Learning

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Observational learning, or social learning, is the process of learning how to do something by merely watching someone else perform a behavior. Observational learning theory was proposed by Albert Bandura to explain how people learn by observing others who serve as models.

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Applications of Cognitive-Social Learning

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In the 35 years since Bandura’s original research, cognitive-social learning theory has been applied to contexts, such as explaining prejudice, media influences on consumer choices, and aggressive tendencies.

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Gender and Cultural Diversity

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Scaffolding as a Teaching Technique in Different Cultures - This section discusses the work of Wood et al. (1976) where scaffolding is used in informal situations between a master teacher and learner and involves a combination of shaping and modeling.

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Neuroscience and Learning

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Research in classical and operant conditioning includes some parts of the limbic system. Classical conditioning involves the hippocampus while the amygdala is involved operant conditioning. Classical conditioning appears to alter the action of neurons that pair stimuli and responses.

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Evolution and Learning

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Biological preparedness innately predisposes an organism to form associations between stimuli and responses. Taste aversion is cited as an example of an easily classically conditioned association.

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Research Highlight:

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Scanning the Brain for Learning – Researchers can now look at the effects of learning on the brain using PET and MRI brain scans.

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conditioning

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Conditioning is a form of learning in which an association is acquired between a stimulus and a response.

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areas studied in Unit 4- memory

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Unit 4 memory explores three kinds of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive-social learning.