Learning

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Learning

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any relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

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Associative learning

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organisms learn that certain events occur together. Two variations are classical conditioning and operant conditioning

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Classical conditioning

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type of learning in which a neural stimulus becomes capable of triggering a conditioned response after having become associated with an unconditioned stimulus. A.k.a. Pavlovian conditioning

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Behaviorism

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the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies only observable behaviors without reference to mental processes

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Unconditioned Response (UR)

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in classical conditioning, the unlearned, involuntary response to the unconditioned stimulus

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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

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In classical conditioning, the stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers the reflexive unconditioned response.

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Conditioned Response (CR)

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In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus, which results from the acquired association between the CS and US

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

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In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that comes to trigger a CR after association with an unconditioned stimulus

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Acquisition

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In a learning experiment, refers to the initial stage of conditioning in which the new response is established and gradually strengthened. In operant conditioning, it is the strengthening of a reinforced response

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Higher-order conditioning

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pairing an established conditioned stimulus (CS) with a neutral stimulus may cause the latter to become a weak CS itself

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Extinction

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refers to the weakening of a CR when the CS is no longer followed by the US; in operant conditioning extinction occurs when a response is no longer reinforced

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Spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance of an extinguished CR after a rest period

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Generalization

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refers to the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for a stimuli similar to the original CS to evoke a CR

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Discrimination

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in classical conditioning refers to the ability to distinguish the CS from similar stimuli that do not signal a US. In operant conditioning, it refers to responding differently to stimuli that signal a behavior will be reinforced or will not be reinforced

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Respondent behavior

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that which occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

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Operant conditioning

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a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

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Operant behavior

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behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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Law of effect

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E. L. Thorndike proposed this which states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are likely to recur, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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Operant chamber

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an experimental chamber for the operant conditioning of an animal such as a pigeon or rat. The controlled environment enables the investigator to present visual or auditory stimuli, deliver reinforcement or punishment, and precisely measure simple responses such as bar presses or key pecking.

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Shaping

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the operant conditioning procedure for establishing a new response by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior

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Reinforcer

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In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

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Positive reinforcement

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In operant conditioning, strengthens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after that response

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Primary reinforcers

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The powers of these are inborn and do not depend on learning

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Conditioned reinforcers

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Stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power through their association with primary reinforcers; also called secondary reinforcers

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Continuous reinforcement

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The operant procedure of reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. In promoting the acquisition of a new response it is best to use continuous reinforcement

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Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

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the operant procedure of reinforcing a response intermittently. A response that has been partially reinforces is much more resistant to extinction than one that has been continuously reinforced.

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Fixed-ratio schedule

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In operant conditioning, it is one in which reinforcement is presented after a set number of responses

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Variable-ratio schedule

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In operant conditioning, it is one in which reinforcement is presented after a varying number of responses

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Fixed-interval schedule

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In operant conditioning, it is one in which a response is reinforced after a specified time has elapsed

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Negative reinforcement

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In operant conditioning, strengthens a response by removing an aversive stimulus after that response

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Variable-interval schedule

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In operant conditioning, it is one in which responses are reinforced after varying intervals of time

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Punishment

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In operant conditioning, the presentation of an aversive stimulus, such as shock, which decreases the behavior it follows

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Cognitive map

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a mental picture of one's environment

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Latent learning

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learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement but only becomes apparent when there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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Intrinsic motivation

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the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake, rather than for some external reason, and to be effective

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Extrinsic motivation

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the desire to perform a behavior in order to obtain a reward or avoid a punishment

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Observational learning

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learning by watching and imitating the behavior of others

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Modeling

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the process of watching and then imitating a specific behavior and is thus an important means through which observational learning occurs

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Mirror neurons

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found in the brain's frontal lobe, may be the neural basis for observational learning. These neurons generate impulses when certain actions are performed or when another individual who performs those actions is observed

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Prosocial behavior

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opposite of antisocial behavior, is positive, helpful, and constructive and is subject to the same principles of observational learning as is undesirable behavior, such as aggression