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172 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Tuckman's Growth Stages
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Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing, Adjourning
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Accuracy
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relates to how close the average of the shots are to the master or bulls-eye
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Precision
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Relates to the spread of the shots or variance
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Measurement Systems
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Measurement systems are typically accurate but not all are precise.
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What is the major deliverable during the measure stage
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The baseline
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Run Charts
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why? It answers whether there is a variation in control over time.
A run is a single point/series where no point is on the other side of the median. |
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Repeatability
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One appraiser measuring the same part
can the same operator measure the same sample multiple times and get the same value? |
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Reproducability
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multiple appraisers measuring the same
can different operators measure the same sample with the same measurement device and get the same value? |
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Can you question the project during the kickoff (forming)?
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Yes - the charter is a living document - it can change.
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CPK
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rule of thumb - CPK * 3 is your sigma process capability
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Descriptive statistics
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Measures of Location (central tendency)
-Mean -Median Measures of Variation (dispersion) -range -standard deviation |
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y=f(x) - what does Y stand for
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Y is a function of X therefore Y is an output.
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Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode
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Defines conflict in categories - avoiding, accommodating, competing, collaborating, and compromising
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Compromising
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Under Thomas-Kilmann - this is Lose/Lose
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Histogram
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need at least 50 datapoints to create a proper histogram
shows shape or distribution of continuous data by displaying how often different values occur -does not show shifts or changes over time |
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Control Chart
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Rule of 7 - more than 7 data points either above or below control means it is out of control
(pg 72, Measure) standard deviation for data is calculated and two additional lines are added to the chart - +/- 3 std dev away from mean - upper control limit and lower control limit. |
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C Chart
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a type of control chart
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CTQ
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how you determine x in f(x)=y
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Do employees want to cause defects?
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Typically no
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SMART Goals
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Specific
Measurable Attainable Relevant Time Bound |
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Do six sigma projects already have a solution
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NO
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Difference between DMAIC and DMADV
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DMAIC - focus on defects/effectiveness
DMADV - focus on waste/efficiency |
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What is the most challenging part of Coaching
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Team members personalities
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C Chart vs U Chart
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C Chart is a count chart - it is an attribute control chart used to study the number of nonconformities or defects
C Chart is used when sample size does not vary, counting defects, and the opportunity for defects does not vary from one sample to the next U Chart is used to study the proportion of nonconformities or defects. Used when counting nonconformities (not number of nonconforming items) and the sample size varies; or when opportunity for defects/nonconformities changes from one sample to the next |
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What do you need for a Six Sigma Problem?
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A champion w/ a program
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What can't you do with a six sigma project
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Can't promise / validate that it will work
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Box Plots
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Close median/mode/mean - more normal curve
Closer = less variation |
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What happens when you Close a project
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delivery to champion - any road blocks to monitoring.
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Effort
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Time + resources - you want high impact and low effort.
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Formula for Range
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Max minus minimum
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Statistical Process Control
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-spc is a measure to ensure that key variables are kept in compliance by inspecting periodic samples and applying set rules to determine if any adjustment in the process is needed
-indicate when process is "out of control" -incorporates UCL and LCL (tyipcal +/- 3stddev |
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Who owns a six sigma project?
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the Champion
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What are restraints
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preconditions against success - roadblocks
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Value Added
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Things the customer would pay for
-no rework is allowed |
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Non Value Added
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waste
-internal failure (steps related to correcting in-process errors due to failures in current or prior step in the process) -external failure (steps which relate to fixing errors in the product that the customer has returned) -control/inspection (steps for internal process review often referred to as "the checker checking the checker" -Dealy -Prep/set up (steps that prepare work for activity downstream in a process) -move (physical transport or transmit of outputs between activities |
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Value Enabling (non value add)
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Not waste - activities that allow you to do work for the customer more quickly or effectively
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Special Cause
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Completely out of control - force majeure - act of god - Hurricane, etc.
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Common Cause
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something you can control
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IMR Chart
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Individual Moving Range
-has a subgroup of 1 (pg 6, Control) |
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+/- 3 std. deviation
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99.7
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Six sigma
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99.9997 - 3.4 defects per million opportunities
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What if you take a project that isn't being currently measured
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Data collected may not be validated.
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SIPOC R
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Supplier
Input Process Output Customer -requirements (use voice of customer/CTQ) |
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Do processes have variation
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Yes - you need to measure to know what to fix
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What are the coaching steps that go with the Thomas-Hillman Growth Stages
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Forming --> Directing
Storming/Norming -->Coaching Performing --> Supporting |
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7 Wastes
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Overproduction
Waiting for machines or operators Transportation Waste Process waste from inefficient, poorly designed processes Excessive inventory Wasted motions through operators leaving workstations to fetch supplies waste of rework through producing defects **waste of human capital - not using them to full potential. |
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5S+1
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sort
straighten shine standardize sustain --safety |
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Pair Wise Comparison Chart
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quick way to eliminate (look up)
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5 Why's
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Do you have to have 5 whys? No, but it allows you to get to the root determination
Why? Why? Why? Why? Why? |
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Problem Statement
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Should explain the Pain - answers:
-what's wrong -where is the problem appearing? -how big is the problem? -what is the impact of the problem on the business? AVOID *stating opinion *assigning blame or responsibility *combining several problem statements *prescribing a solution |
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Which is more difficult - Technical or Non-Technical
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Non-technical (things like personalities)
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What should you do when you close a project?
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-reward the team
-transition to owner - |
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Types of Data
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Nominal
Ordinal Ratio |
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Nominal Data
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Attribute data - (naming)
can be counted |
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Ordinal data
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attribute data
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Ratio data
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discrete - can do math against it (i.e. length of time, distance, etc).
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Approximately how many days are spent on a kaizen event
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3 days
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Team charter
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Rules of team engagement, such as arrive on time, etc.
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Poka Yoke
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Mistake proofing - make it impossible for an error to reach the customer.
-mistake prevention - prevent errors from occurring -mistake detection - generate an alert as an error is about to occur or just occurred. |
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Kana
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Today's delighters become tomorrows expectations
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DPMO
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Defects per million opportunities
3.4 = 6sigma |
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FMEA
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Failure Mode Effect Analysis
-Failure Mode - the way in which a specific input fails -Effect - the impact on the customer requirements due to the failure mode -cause - the source of process variation that causes the failure mode to occur -controls - systematic methods in place to prevent or detect failure modes or causes |
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tuckman's forming stage attributes
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-excitement, anticipation, pride, optimism
-intial tentative attachment to team/avoids conflict -suspicion/fear about job ahead -attempt to define tasks, establish role -have discussions of lofty abstract concepts -discuss symptoms or problems not relevant to task |
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tuckman's storming stage attributes
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-individuals resist tasks and methods that are different from their own
-attitude fluctuate about success of the team -arguing among members -defensiveness, competition, "choosing sides" -creation of perceived "pecking order" |
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tuckman's norming stage attribiutes
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-sense of team cohesion
-acceptance of membership on team -works together productively and effectively -team members use constructive criticism -address team dysfunction |
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tuckman's performing stage attributes
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-members have more insight into each others strengths and weaknesses
-team members feel satisfaction and pride regarding team progress -team members develop attachment to team -constructive self-change -effective at solving group problems |
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Team Facilitation - Directing
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-Clarify team member roles and resposibilities
-Establish procedures -gather necessary resources |
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Team Facilitation - Coaching
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-set immediate performance results
-challenge team with new data, alternative methods, diff. POV -acknowledge team efforts -candid constructive feedback |
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Team Facilitation - Supporting
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-remove technical and political roadblocks
-make sure team has constant and appropriate recognition and reward |
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Thomas-Kilman - Avoiding
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-unassertive and uncooperative
-win/lose scenario |
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Thomas-Kilmann - Accommodating
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-unassertive but cooperative
-win/lose scenario |
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Thomas-Kilmann - Competing
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-assertive and uncooperative
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Thomas-kilmann - collaborating
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assertive AND cooperative
win/win |
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thomas-kilmann - compromising
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intermediate in assertiveness and cooperativeness
lose/lose |
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operational definition
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should be tied to the process output / performance measure
-physical output critical characteristics deemed important to customer |
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project charter
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living document that provides the purpose and goals for the improvement team. includes:
-problem statement -goal statement -project scope -milestones -team/roles should be in final form by the time Measure phase is wrapping up. |
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Goal statement
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-defines the objective of the project
-should define relief of the problem/symptoms of the cause includes: -description of what will be accomplished -measurable target for desired results -projected completion date AVOID - defining how it will be achieved - DO NOT SOLVE |
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-stakeholder
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-process owner who will be either directly or indirectly impacted by the change
-critical to the buy-in of the change -must be on board for the change to be successful -anyone who controls critical resources -anyone who can block the change initiative by direct or indirect means -anyone who must approve certain aspects of the change strategy -anyone who shapes the thinking of critical constituents -anyone who owns a key work process impacted by change |
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project scope
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-boundaries of the project
-start and stop points -known constraints |
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Process Map
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Inputs (x) -> Processes (f) -> Output (y)
Process - should be 5-7 core steps if more than 10 steps - process too detailed or too large Level 1 = SIPOC Level 2 = Broken down Step Level 3 = procedural |
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SIPOC steps
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-determine suppliers/label with nouns
-determine inputs/label w/ nouns -determine process steps/label w/ verbs -determine outputs/label w/ nouns -determine customers/label w/ nouns -determine requirements / operationally define |
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muda
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Waste
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measure phase deliverables
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-determine appropriate measures for the project
-build data collection plan -collect data -analyze data for baseline performance -determine process capability -revise the project charter, if necessary |
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Data Collection Plan
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*data collected is meaningful
*data collected is valid *relevant data is collected concurrently *should include all of the sources used to collect data |
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Input measures
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the key quality and delivery requirements placed on your suppliers (e.g. number of errors on an order request)
*allows measurement of hte consistency of the inputs to the process *leading indicators of process indicators |
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Process Measures
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Measures that are internal to your process. They include quality and delivery measures important to your internal customers. They are related to teh pertinent output measures.
*upstream from output *include turn-around-time/true predictors or leading indicators of output measure |
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Output measures
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Used to determine how well customer needs and requirements are met.
*most important *voice of customer/voice of process |
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operational definition
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Precise description that tells how to get a value for the characteristic you are tryin to measure
*includes what something is and how to measure it. *removes ambiguity *describes your way of measuring |
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population
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entire group of data under study
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sample
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significantly smaller subset of the population used to make an inference
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mean
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average - sum all data values and dividing by the total number of data points.
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standard deviation
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measure of variability
stddev=sqroot([sum(x-mean^2)]/N) |
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Discrete data
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further categorized as attribute or categorical
-used to describe a named attribute or characteristic (eye color) |
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Continuous/Variable Data
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Can be measured on a continuum; decimal subdivisions that are meaningful and can be infinitely-divisible
*time/money/pressure/speed/feed rate, etc |
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Data Scales: Nominal
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nominal - data consists of names, labels, or categories. cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme. No arithmetic operations are performed for nominal data.
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Data Scales: Ordinal
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ordinal - data is arranged in some order, but differences between data values either cannot be determined or are meaningless
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Data Scales: Interval
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Data can be arranged in some order and for which differences in data values are meaningful. The data can be arranged in an ordering scheme and differences can be interpreted.
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Data Scales: Ratio
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Data that an be ranked and for which all arithmetic operations including division can be performed. Ratio level data has an absolute zero and a value of zero indicates a complete absence of the characteristic of interest.
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Sampling
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a representative sample is one where the sample represents the larger population.
-data collected must fairly represent all the data -no systematic differences between data you collect and data you don't collect -every items stands a known and usually equal chance of being included -avoids bias |
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Random sampling
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ensures that any one sample has an equal likelihood of being taken.
-sample must be representative of the population, not just easy to obtain. -random is important so as not to introduce bias. |
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minimum sample sizes
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(minimums)
average (mean) = 5-10 std dev = 25-30 histogram/pareto = 50 scatter diagram = 25 control chart = 20 |
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Stratification
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data is sorted into various categories. Through identification of specific factors, one can surface suspicious patterns and uncover differences in processes.
Common Factors: What type When Where Who |
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Data Collection Methods
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-face to face interviews
-telephone interviews -computer assisted interviews -complaint logs -data mining -generated reports -financial documents |
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Attribute MSA
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example: pass/fail product inspection (m&m's)
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Out of Ordinary events
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should be included in measurements.
*significant sources of variation not identified in the brainstorm activities *may explain data far outside expected range *significant long term source of variation |
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Variation
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-variation in data represents the "voice of the process"
-common cause variation -special cause variation |
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variation - voice of the process
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-all repetitive activities of a process have a certain amount of fluctuation
-input, process and output measures will fluctuate |
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Bar Chart
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can be used for continuous or discrete data
-good for showing comparisons of several quantities |
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Pie Chart
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useful to see how data within categories makes up the total
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histogram shape
x xxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx -------------------------------------- |
-no special causes, data likely comes from stable process
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histogram shape:
x x xx xx xxxx xxx xxxxxxxxxxxx -------------------- |
bi-modal/two humps
data may come from a mixture of two processes |
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histogram shapes:
x xx xxx xxxxx xxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxx ----------------------- |
asymmetric/long tail
data may come from a process which is not easily explained with assumptions, like normality. |
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Boxplot
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Summarizes data about the shape, dispersion and center of the data and helps spot outliers
*not affected by outliers because medians are visible. *requires that one of the variables, x or y, be categorical or discrete and the other be continuous. |
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rational subgroup
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sample of a process characteristic in which all the items in the sample were produced under very similar conditions in a relatively short time period.
-typically small in size (3-5 units) |
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I-MR Chart
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combines control chart of average moving range with the individuals chart.
-use individuals chart to track process level and detect presence of special causes when sample size is 1. -subgroup size is 1. -batch /destructive testing/health care |
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P Chart
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used for tracking defectives
-good bad/pass fail/accept reject -center line is the proportion of rejects and also your process capability *proportion of defectives |
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Basic Six Sigma Metrics
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DPU - defects per unit produced
DPMO - defects per million opportunities RTY - rolled throughput yield (probability that any unit will go through defect-free) Cycle Time Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ) |
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6 sigma
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3.4 DPM0
99.9997% defect-free |
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5 sigma
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230 DPMO
99.9770% defect free |
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4 sigma
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6,210 DPMO
99.3790% defect-free |
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3 sigma
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66,800 DPMO
93.320% defect-free |
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2 sigma
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308,000 DPMO
69.20% defect-free |
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1 sigma
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690,000 DPMO
31% defect-free |
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Rolled Throughput Yield (RTY)
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Also called final yield, is the defect generation measure for:
-how much "more than needed" effort is applied to a process to "get things done right" -how much waste exists in a process (rework, correcting errors, inspection of other peoples work) -measured in excess units produced, or hours worked above standard requirement |
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Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ)
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Defined as the cost involved in fulfilling the gap between the desired and actual product service quality
-includes labor, rework, disposition and material costs that have been added (+morale). -includes concessions and refunds -measured in dollars lost or wasted |
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Analyze phase deliverables
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-process map complete
-root causes identified -root causes verified using appropriate statistical methods *the Analyze step looks at upstream variables (Xs) to determine how they affect the output variables (Ys) and to what extent |
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Data Analysis Path
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-casewise data exists on the process Xs and Ys
-looking for difference in how units are processed -some of the tools include correlation, ANOVA, Regression, etc. |
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Process Analysis Path
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-Complicated process
-process has rework and complexity -looking for common problems with how all units are processed -some of the tools include value stream maps, swim lane maps, value added and non-value added time analysis. |
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Data vs process path
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Which to choose?
-if project goal is centered around "effectiveness" measures, try the data path first -if project goal is centered around "efficiency" measures, try the process path first (probably have to use both anyways) |
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information from process mapping
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-process inputs (Xs)
-supplier requirements -Process outputs (Ys) -Actual customer needs -All value-added and non value-added process tasks and steps -key control measures -Decision points -Problems that have immediate fixes |
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process map symbols
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-rectangle = activity - statements should begin with a verb
-diamond = decision point - only two paths - Yes and No -arrow = connection and direction of flow -parallelogram = shows there are data -ellipse = start or end of the process -circle with letter/number = continuation to another page |
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swim lane process map
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-indicates process steps by role/responsibility
-excellent for showing handoffs |
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work flow/spaghetti diagram
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-useful during the observation of work flow
-see the path of travel either information or personnel take to complete a process -key info, such as reworks, physical steps taken and duration can be captured |
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Value Stream Map
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-shows all of the steps to take a product to completion
-includes key variables at each step enabling the process to take action -can contain info: value added/non value added label, cycle time, lead time, changeover time, number of operators, defect rates, wait times, inventory levels |
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Value
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-defined as the worth placed upon something
*goods, services or both *can be expressed as money, merit, or a principle or standard **customer determines value (internal or external). |
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value stream mapping symbols
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-truck = transportation
-process box = activity for the process step -customer supplier box = relationship between process and the supplier/customer -data box = specific info for each process step -process time = line shows value-added and NVA time for process steps -timeline total = line sums data from process time lines -electronic= information flow |
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Process Time
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the total time that a unit of work is having something done to it other than time due to delays or waiting; includes the time it takes to complete value-added, internal failure, external failure, control inspection, preparation/setup and move operations
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Delay Time (queue time)
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total time where work is waiting to be processed
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Cycle time
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total time from the point at which the customer orders the good or service until the good or service is delivered to the customer; cycle time includes process time and delay time
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Flow Of Work
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Process Time
+ Delay Time = Cycle Time |
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Ishikawa Diagram (cause & effect diagram)
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Also called fishbone diagram
5M's and a P -Measurement -Methods -Machinery -Mother nature -People -Materials |
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6P's and 1S
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Ishikawa - used in service situations
-policies -procedures & standardization -plant -people -purpose -placement |
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Ishikawa Bone Categories: Measurement
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Groups causes related to the measurement and measuring of a process activity or output
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Ishikawa Bone Categories: People
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groups root causes related to people, staffing, and organizations
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Ishikawa Bone Categories: Methods
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groups root causes related to how the work is done and hte way the process is actually conducted
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Ishikawa Bone Categories: Equipment
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groups root causes related to tools used in the process
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Ishikawa Bone Categories: Materials
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groups root causes related to parts, supplies, forms, or information needed to execute a process
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Ishikawa Bone Categories: Mother Nature (Environment)
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groups root causes related to our work environment, market conditions and regulatory issues
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Ishikawa - Classifying
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Classify all the Xs identified
-Controllable - C (Knowledge) -Procedural - P (People, Systems) -Noise - N (External or Uncontrollable) Procedural as a subset of controllable |
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scatterplot
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-use when there is one root cause to validate
-explores the relationship between predictor (X) and response (Y) variables. |
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Correlation
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Correlation is used to show a possible relationship between variables (X and Y)
-positive correlation (as X increases, Y increases) -negative correlation (as X increases, Y decreases) -no correlation (no relationship between X and Y) |
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Correlation Coefficient
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number which is always between 1 and -1 and indicates both the direction and strength of a linear relationship between two variables
1 = strong positive correlation -1 = strong negative correlation 0 = no correlations |
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correlation coefficient cont'd
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expressed by 'r'
-correlation coefficient of exactly +1 indicates that the date fall in a perfect line of positive slow -correlation coefficient of exactly -1 indicates that the data fall in a perfect line of negative slope |
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Correlation vs Causation
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keep in mind that a strong relationship between two variables does no confirm that one causes
-validation of root cause is made only when two standards are met: 1) there is a statistically significant relationship between the suspected root cause and the effect *knowledge of the process corroborates this causal relationship |
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improve phase deliverables
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-identify a list of possible solutions
-rank or prioritize solutions -select solutions -design the new process -pilot/implement solution -verify the improvement -verify projected savings w/ finance/accounting |
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Lean Principles
(improve phase) |
1-minimize approvals, especially multiple levels of approvals
2-Minimize hand-offs 3-assign clear accountability for process steps 4-build quality control into each process step to minimize defects at all steps along the process 5-minimize or eliminate inspections or appraisal activities 6-balance the flow of the work to avoid bottlenecks 7-minimize batch sizes of work flowing through the process |
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affinity diagram
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tool used to organize and summarize natural groupings of ideas
-used after a brainstorming activity -divides brainstorm list into affinity sets (related ideas) |
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Payoff Matrix
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Looks to relationship of the impact vs effort in order to reduce the number of solutions
X = effort Y = impact |
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Deal Breakers
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State minimum requirements that must be met in order for the solution to be feasible
such as: -laws -policy -customer "must be" -business "must be" |
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N/3 Voting
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-list possible solutions and combine similar
-number each solution -qty of solutions each person gets to vote for is determined by N (total # of choices) divided by 3 -each person writes down number of solutions they support -tally the votes per choice and eliminate those with the fewest votes -continue until favorite emerges |
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Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
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-list final solutions
-assign letter to each person -each person ranks solutions between 1 and N (N=# of solutions available) *1 is least important -total score for each and discuss rankings |
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Reducing congestion and delays
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congestion (bottlenecking) occurs because of variation in demand. Once identified - use techniques:
-pooling: cross train staff to step in during times of peak load -triaging: sort jobs into categories that reflect different levels of effort required -back-up capacity: sustained peaks require backup capacity (cross training) - if truly sustained add staff or equipment |
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work cell optimization
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-Determine initial design and flow then implement
-be prepared to further redesign -U Cell: good for multiple operations/single operator -T line: operations that are unique upfront, but common at the end -Z cell: good for structural barriers |
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Two Bin Replenishment
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-replenishment system that uses two bins of stock inventory
-bin 1 should contain enough to cover a calculated period of usage at point of use -when bin1 empty, remove and replenish - use bin2 until then |
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why use a pilot?
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-confirm proposed solution will achieve the targeted performance
-identify potential implementation problems -more accurately predict monetary savings -release an early version of the solution to a particular market with an urgent need for change. |
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Pilot Plan
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-define success
-start and end dates -stakeholders -resources -communication plan -deployment plan |
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Change Management
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-establish a sense of urgency
-form a powerful guiding team -create a vision -communicate the vision -empower others to act on the vision **most important -train employees -plan for and create short-term wins |
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Control Phase deliverables
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-process documentation (sipoc/process maps)
-process control plan -close the project |
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Controlling improvements
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-need to be monitored on an ongoing basis
-if data shows unacceptable performance, there must be someone responsible for researching the problem(s) and getting the process back in an acceptable performance range |
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Process Control Plan
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-illustrates relationships in a process and focus a business on activities and attributes that have significant impact on the quality of the process outputs.
-defines priorities of a process and establish performance targets and accounablities |
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Process Control Plan elements
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-process description
-process customer -process CTQs -output indicators -process flowchart -process indicators (predictors) -outcome indicators -Checking -date and revisions |
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Closing the project
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-review problem statement and goal statement
-review control phase elements -lessons learned -thank the team |