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115 Cards in this Set

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Wazir
A chief administrator and head of the caliph's inner councils. The bureaucratization of the Islamic Empire reflected upon him. The wazirs oversaw the building of an administrative infrastructure that allowed the Abbasid to project their demands for tribute to the most distant provinces of the empires.
Zakat
One of the Five Pillars of Islam. The zakat is a payment for charity of a fraction of how much you earned. This strengthened community cohesion and won converts from those seeking ethical code that stressed social responsibility and the unity of all believers.
al-Ghazali
One of the greatest Islamic theologians. He tried to fuse the Greek and Quranic traditions, but struggled. Those ideas were often rejected by orthodox scholars.
al-Mahdi (775-785)
The third Abbasid caliph. Tried to reconcile the moderates among the Shi'i opposition to Abbasid rule, but ended in failure. He developed habits of luxury and built monumental building for himself, which would prove to be an ever greater financial drain in the reigns of later caliphs. He also failed to solve the vexing problem of succession. Also, he let all his wives and concubines to become involved in the power of the caliph.
Yoruba
Poeple who were organized into small city-states. They were highly urbanized. Many farmed in surrounding countryside. City-states developed under the strong authority of regional kings.
Zanj
The Arabic term for the east African coast. This could also refer to the inhabitants of the east African coast, hence the name Zanj slaves. By the 8th and 9th centuries, visitors and refugees from Oman and Persian Gulf were attracted by the possibilities of trade with these lands.
Hadith
Traditions of the prophet Muhammad. These played a critical role in Islamic law & ritual, and were recorded by women. They were developed sometime in the 8th and 9th centuries CE. Before hadiths, Muhammad’s “stories” were told orally. The two main branches of Islam, Shi`ism and Sunnism, have different sets of Hadith collections. The Hadith had led to the creation of the Muslim holy book, Quran. Many of modern day Islamic law originally came from the Hadith collections.
Hajj
Defined as pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca to worship at the Ka’ba. It is the fifth pillar of Islam. In 631 CE, Muhammad led his followers from Medina to Mecca, it was the first Hajj to be performed by Muslims alone, and the only Hajj ever performed by Muhammad. There are many myths or stories to how to Hajj developed. The hajj drew together the faithful from Morocco to China. No injunction did more to give Islam a universal character.
Harem
A kind of “nunnery” created for Muslim women. The women lived in special quarters away from the men. It originated in the Near East and came to the Western world via the Ottoman Empire.
Seljuk Turks
Nomadic invaders from central Asia via Persia
Shah-Nama
Written by Firdawsi in late 10th and early 11th centuries
Ethiopia
The Zagwe dynasty ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. Christianity had been present in Ethiopia even before the Roman Empire, and the Christian kingdom of Axum was present. Axum developed in the highlands of eastern Africa under the dynasty or King Lalaibela
Gao
A town in eastern Mali on the River Niger. Throughout history, Gao was a major trade center, and the capital of the Songhai Empire. The city was founded around the seventh century as Kawkaw, its first recorded monarch being Kanda, who founded the Za Dynasty of what became the Songhai Empire. Under Sonni Ali in the late fifteenth century the city became the centre of an empire, with about 70,000 residents and a 1,000-boat navy, but Gao was largely destroyed by the Moroccan invasion of 1591.
Medina
A holy city that supposedly held the remains of Muhammad and is the second most holiest city of Islam. People form mecca who opposed and wanted to flee that city due to religious tensions fled to Medina. It was considered his home after Hijrah. It was a site of serious tension between religious groups. Located in Saudia Arabia in the Al Madinah Province about 338km from Mecca, made it a get away site to be somewhat safe in.
Mosque
Mosques are places of worship for those who practice the Islamic faith. They were built in Quba by Muhammad when the migration to Yathrib took place. People who practice Islam go to these mosques and use it as their prayer sites. They do not ever have any statues or depictions of Muhammad for they thought that having depictions of Muhammad was considered a sin.
Chinggis Khan
(Ghenghis Khan) was the founder of Khan. He lived (1162-1227) and became very successful in conquering many lands. He was able to invade China few times, even with the Great wall of China blocking them. He was able to take over the Abbasid capitol and Baghdad with ease because his immense power as a domineering leader. His forces ended the Abbasid caliphate, after defeating the Turko-Persians.
Crusades
Similar to the Jihad, These Christian version of holy wars created much tension. The western Christian side of Europe, particularly the holy roman empire, and the franks were the attackers. The main goal was to gain (steal) land from the Islams. They eventually took control over Jerusalem. Throughout this process they “borrowed” Islamic science medicine and astronomy theories and ideas. These violent wars over religious lands were quite petty.
Jihad
Jihad were Islamic holy wars that were implemented in order to force the spread of Islam. There were restrictions on these wars, such as
Juula
The Juula are part of the Mande ethnic group consisting mainly the Western African countries. Mainly arount the Mali-Guinea Bissau. These were the merchants of Western African Islamic society. They helped trade ideas, and religion. They spread Muhammad’s teachings through their trade routes. Their trade routes spread Islam through Africa. They were predominantly Sunni Muslims
Sundiata Keita
Was the founder of the Mali empire, (c. 1217 – c. 1255). He was noted in the epic of sundiata as a hero that was valiant. Sundiata supported the Islam religion and took the title Mansa. After his death rulers who followed his footsteps also began to call themselves Mansa. Since oral communication was the primary method of communication the Sundiata epic is very fragmented and doesn’t flow through actual history. He gave a boost in agriculture.
Shi'a
A political and theological division within Islam. They are the followers of Ali and are in direct opposition with Sunnis. The root of all tension is the decision on who should become the successor of Muhammad in which the Shiites believe that only the descendants of Muhammad have the right to succeed. Their support for the Abbasids led to the ultimate downfall of Umayyad dynasty and the rise of the Abbasid dynasty.
Sunnis
Another division within Islam that are in direct opposition with the Shiites. It is the majority of the Muslim population. The disagreement on the successor of Muhammad or caliph, which they believe that it is primarily a leader not a religious authority. After the Abbasid conquest of the Umayyad dynasty, the staunch support from the Abbasids to Sunnis led to increasing intolerance to the Shiites.
Chinggis Khan
( 1170's - 1227) War commander of the Mongols, central Asian nomadic people, who led the defeat of the Turko-Persian kingdoms that had developed in the regions to the east of Baghdad. Under his effective start and rule, his future generations renewed the Mongol assault on the rich centers of Islamic civilization. In 1258, the Mongols took over the Abbasid capital, Baghdad, and ended the Abbasid caliphate.
Crusades
Series of military adventures launched by western Christians to regain the Holy Land from Muslims. They temporarily succeeded in capturing Jerusalem and establishing Christian kingdoms. The contact between Christians and Muslims through warfare led to cultural diffusion. Christians borrowed techniques such as Muslim weapons, fortification building. It greatly influenced European science, math, and architecture.
Sharia
An Islamic law that emphasized the patrilineal nature of Islamic inheritance. Under the Sharia, women had very limited rights and were considered inferior to men. It includes the Hadith, or sayings of Muhammad, and states that laws can not be separated from religion. The Sharia impacted, or even controlled, people's everyday life, making them to follow certain rules and allowing them only to perform certain tasks.
Songhay
Successor state after Mali that arose under the dynamic leader Sunni Ali. The Songhay dynasty dominated the middle areas of the Niger valley, establishing their capital at Gao. The dynasty greatly expanded their boundaries so that by mid 16th century, Songhay dominated the entire central Sudan. During the Songhay dynasty, the fusion of Islamic and pagan beliefs still continued, causing some issues due to different opinions. The Muslims attempted to impose a strict interpretation of the Islamic law, but could not fully eliminate the pagan culture.
Jihad
Islamic holy wars launched to forcibly spread the Muslim faith. Jihad has been misrepresented among the non-Muslims as wars meant solely to convert non-Muslims to Islam. Mass conversions were avoided during Jihads because Muslims cannot be taxed, while Jews, Christians, and other non-Muslims could.
Ka’ba
A revered religious site in pre-Islamic Arabia located in Mecca. It attracted many pilgrims and customers, but also helped serve as a site where conflicting clans would make truce. After the foundation of Islam, the Ka’ba remained a very important site.
Karbala
The place where Ali’s second son Husayn was killed with companions by the Umayyads. After this event, the supporters of Ali, or the Shi’is, resisted against the Umayyad caliphate. The Shi’is would later support the Abbasids in conquering the Umayyads.
Qutb-ub-din Aibak
A slave lieutenant of Mohammed of Ghur, a military commander during the second Muslim conquest of India. Qutb-ub-din Aibak seized power after Mohammed’s assassination, which contributed to the new Muslim empire in India.
Rajas
Rajas is one of the three gunas of Hindu philosophy. Rajas is the force that promotes passion and excitement.
Griots
Griots are storytellers from Post-classical Africa that were responsible for keeping the oral tradition of the Bantu, since the Bantu had no written language. They were advisors to the kings because of their knowledge of the past.
Hausa States
States that combined Muslim and pagan traditions that rose in northern Nigeria. Cities in the region formed an urbanized royal court that lay in a fortified capital that ruled over the animistic villages. They extended their rule with powerful cavalry forces that protected their trade in salt, grains, and cloth. Though they were small, they reproduced many of the social, political, and religious forms of the grassland empires.
Ali
The cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad who helped protect and secure safe passage of Muhammad to Medina as he fled Umayyad persecution. He lived circa 570-661 C.E. He was an early candidate for caliph directly after Muhammad’s death. He was favored by the orthodox Muslims, yet passed over at the time due to his young age. This election sparked the split of orthodox Shi’ites and non-orthodox Sunnis. He later became one of the orthodox caliphs who led the Shi’ite political/theological division of Islam (656-661 C.E.).
Allah
Began as a supreme god of polytheistic Bedouin religions and later became the one and only supreme god of monotheistic Islam. Worship to this god depended largely of the culture in question, for Islam usually adapted to indigenous practices.
Ayan
The wealthy landed elite that emerged in the early decades of Abbasid rule (circa 750 C.E.). Many of these landlords were either previously established, or newcomers (notably Arab soldiers who invested in merchants in exchange for large estates). These elite owned the land of many peasants who participated in a sharecropping system.
Ulama
Orthodox religious scholars within Islam who pressed for a conservative and restrictive theology. They insist that the Quran is the final, perfect, and complete revelation of an all-knowing divinity. They were also increasingly opposed to non-Islamic ideas and scientific thinking. They resisted the preservation and revamping of ancient knowledge, such as Greek learning, feeling it undermined the Quran.
Almoravids
A strict religious reform of Islamic Berber tribes in northern Africa (during the 11th century). They controlled the gold trade across the Sahara, and conquered Ghana in 1076. They launched a jihad (holy war to purify, spread, and protect the faith), expanding southward into African kingdoms of the savanna, and westward into Spain.
Askia
Military title given to Muslim rulers of the mid-16th century who emphasized expanding the boundaries of the Islamic empire, and fueled a system of provincial administration to mobilize recruits for the army.
Ridda Wars
The Ridda Wars were the defeat of rival prophets and larger Bedouin clans by the Islamic faithful after turning back attacks on Mecca. The Ridda wars brought the return of Arabian tribes to the Islamic fold. Commanded by leaders over seen by Abu Bakr (caliph from 632 to 634) and the growing ranks of the Islamic faithful allowed further raids in present day Iraq, Syria and Egypt which would expand the Arab empire and spread the Islamic religion.
Shaykhs
Shaykhs are elder advisors or leaders of tribes and clans in the Bedouin society. These leaders were almost always men with large herds, several wives, many children and numerous retainers. They helped regulate the use of watering places and grazing lands, which were a major source of conflict and wars between tribes, and were enforced by free warriors of the tribe.
Demak
Demak was the most powerful of the trading states on north Java. After a Hindu- Buddhism kingdom converted to Islam, it too converted. The new faith, from Demak, was carried to the Celebes and Spice Islands to the southern Philippines. This is very important in the cultural diffusion and spread of Islam to Southeast Asia and Oceania through trading links.
Holy Land
The Holy Land of Islam is Jerusalem. Jerusalem if also the biblical Holy Land of the religions Christianity and Judaism. Between 1096 and 1099, Muslim political development and Christian crusades surprise, the crusades achieved their main objective in coming to dominate and capture the Holy Land. Their assaults were successful and in June 1099, Christian Knights massacred the Holy Land itself. The shared Holy land between these three religions caused conflict then, as well as now in present day.
Nok
Nok was a village located in the forests of central Nigeria, where terra- cotta objects of a realistic and highly stylized form has been found dating back from about 500 B.C.E. to 200 C.E. The Nok remain mostly a mystery besides the use of agriculture and iron tools and their artistic skill which has spread and influenced other forest areas and peoples.
Sharia
Sharia is the Islamic law. It inscribes Patrilineal customs and traditional practices of Muslims. These customs were the reason of surprise of the Matrilineal societies in Mali and Songhay when traveled to by the North African peoples. The position of women was equal to men along with freedom compared to the traditional Sharia.
Bedouin
Nomadic camel and goat herders living in “uninhabitable” desert zones on the Arabian. The camel nomads, which were the dominant of the two, were organized in tribes and kin-related clans. Their wealth and status depended on their possession of animals. Mecca and Medina were extensions of the camel nomads' tribal culture. The councils of elder advisers were called shayks, who were usually men with large herds. Clan cohesion was reinforced by inter-clan rivalries
Caliph/Caliphate
A caliph spiritual leader of Islam that claims succession of Muhammad. The first two caliphs, Abu Bakr (ruled from 632 to 634 ) and Omar were descendants of Muhammad. The third, Uthman was disliked by many Muslims because he was the first Umayyad caliph. The fourth of the “Rightly Guided Caliphs” was, Ali, was a famous warrior as well as Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. The caliphate was the system of governance first established in Islam.
Damascus
Political center of communication under the Umayyads. The Umayyad Dynasty lasted from 661 to 750. They shifted to Damascus around the early 700's. Damascus is located in Syria
Sultans of Delhi
Rulers of imperial houses of dynasties in India form 1210 to 1526. The Delhi Sultanate (Muslim dynasties) was founded after Muhammad of Ghor defeated Prithvi Raj and took over Delhi in 1192. The rulers were Persian, Afghan, Turkic, and mixed descent. The name Sultans of Delhi literally translates to “princes of the heartland.” They fought against each other and against Mongol and Turk invaders and Hindu princes for control of the Indus and Gangetic heartlands of Indian civilization. All of the dynasties involved based their power on military machines. Their armies' support and court establishments were the main objectives of the bureaucracies that each ruler tried to maintain.
Benin
Large city-state formed in 14th century under Ewuare the Great. It's control extended from the Niger river to the coast near Lagos. Benin city had a huge population. The population had a style similar to Ile-Ife, but less naturalistic. It was a very strong and centralized city- state with significant military and economic power. Rulers were excellent at controlling trade and the Europeans were never able to dominate Benin.
Caliph
A religious and political successor of Muhammad. In Sudanic states, Islamic titles, emir or caliph, were used by ruling families to reinforce their authority and make them appear more powerful. The ruling families surrounded themselves with Muslim advisers and scribes that were literate and aided government administration.
Uthman
Uthman was the third caliph, but the first to be chosen from the Umayyad clan, Muhammad’s early enemy. For that reason, he was disliked by many Arabs and was murdered by mutinous warriors returning from Egypt. His death was the signal for the supporters of Ali to proclaim his as caliph. It also set off civil war in Islam between followers of Ali and the Umayyad clan.
wars
Warfare was an important part of life for the people of the Bedouin clans due to conflict over pastureland and watering holes and defending one’s honor. In Pre- Islamic Arabia, men were able to earn status through war. Islam was able to spread quickly and convert so many partially due to Jihads, which were holy wars against pagans and other non-believers. The Ridda Wars were fought to defeat rival prophets and restore the unity of Islam. There were many civil wars as a result of claims for control of the Islamic empire.
al- Rashid
al- Rashid was the most famous of the Abbasid caliphs. He shared his father’s taste for sumptuous and costly living. His dependence on Persian advisors led the growth of power of royal advisors at the expense of the caliphs to become a trend in succeeding reigns. His death led to civil wars over succession.
bhaktic cults
Bhaktic cults are groups dedicated to gods and goddesses. They stressed the importance of string emotional bonds between devotees and the god or goddess who was the object of their veneration. The most widely worshipped gods of the Bhaktic cults were Shiva and Vishnu.
Takrur
Takrur was one of several Sudanic kingdoms and was located on the Senegal River to the west. The rulers were considered sacred and were surrounded by rituals that separated them from their subjects. With the conversion of the rulers of Takrur after the 10th century, Islam was used to reinforce indigenous ideas of kingship, so that Islam became something of a royal cult.
the Sahel
The Sahel is the extensive grassland belt at the southern edge of the Sahara. It became a point of exchange between the forests to the south and North Africa. The location of African states on the open plains of the dry Sahel meant that these states were subject to attack and periodic droughts.
Timbuktu
Timbuktu was a port city of Mali located just off the flood plain on the great bend in the Niger River. It was reported to have a population of 50,000, and by the 14th century, its great Sankore mosque contained a library and an associated university where scholars, jurists, and Muslim theologians studied. Given the difficulties of the soil, the periodic droughts, insect pests, storage problems, and the limitations of technology in Timbuktu, the use of irrigation, careful cultivation, and the crop rotation was able to provide for its people the basic foods that supported them and the imperial state on which they were based.
Abbasid
It was the dynasty that came to power within 750 and succeeded the Umayyads as caliphs within Islam. The Abbasid party, which traced its decedents from Muhammad’s uncle, openly challenged the Umayyad armies in 747. They joined forces with many surrounding groups, but the most important alliance was the one they formed with the Shi’ites. Eventually they fought with the Umayyad caliph in the Battle on the River Zab
Abu al-Abbas
He was an Islamic caliph (reigned 749–754), first of the Abbasid dynasty, which was to rule over eastern Islam for approximately the next 500 years. Abbasids trace their origins back to him for he is Muhammad’s uncle. After the Abbasid victory over the Umayyads, Abu-al-Abbas invited all of the remaining Umayyads to a “reconciliation party” where most of them were slain. The only man who escaped was the grandson of a former caliph that fled to Spain and founded the caliph of Córdoba.
Abu Bakr
He was one of Muhammad’s earliest and closest friends, as well as caliph from 632 to 634. He was courageous, warm and wise. He also had a very strong knowledge of the history of the Bedouin tribes, so he knew how they worked and which patterns they followed. His mandate was very limited and had no financial support from the Muslim community. The Muslims of Medina resolved the crisis of succession by accepting Abu Bakr as the first successor of the Prophet of Muhammad, a caliph. In his rule, he suppressed the tribal political and religious uprisings known as the apostasy, thereby bringing central Arabia under Muslim control. Then by undertaking direct expansion from Arabia into Iraq and Syria, he began the Muslim conquests.
Vishnu
Vishnu is the Brahman, later Hindu, god of sacrifice. He was the most widely worshiped gods along with Shiva. Vishnu is often pictured with his companion, Sri, and usually has four arms. Each hand holds an emblem of his divinity
Ali
He was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, as well as one of the orthodox caliphs and the focus for Shi’is. Ali accompanied Muhammad when he first traveled to medina fleeing from the Umayyads, and settling Medina's disputes. There were many risks involved considering the assassins who were after Muhammad. By 622, Muhammad and Ali, followed by a group of followers, finally made it safely to medina. Ali later became the fourth of the rightly guided caliphs otherwise known as the rightful successors to Muhammad. Reigning from 656 to 661, he was the first leader of Shi’ism in all its forms. The question of his right to the caliphate resulted in the only major split in Islam, into the Sunni and Shi'ite branches.
Almohadis
A reformist movement that surged along the Islamic Berbers of northern Africa in 1130. It penetrated into sub-Saharan Africa. The movement closely mimicked the movement that surged in the 11th century, under pressure from Muslim invaders, the Almoravids. They then launched on the course of a jihad, or a holy war. The jihads purpose was to purify, spread and protect the faith. These northern African and Spanish developments were an essential background to the penetration of Islam into Sub-Saharan Africa.
Mu’awiya
The founder of the Umayyad dynasty, caliph from 661-680.Muawiya was the son of Abu Sufyan, the leader of the Abd Shams clan. With Muawiya's accession, the seat of the caliphate was moved to Damascus. Muawiya continued raids against the Byzantines, both in Anatolia and North Africa. Muawiya's most lasting innovation was his designation of his son Yazid as his successor
Muhammad
Born in 570 in the Arabian city of Mecca, he was orphaned at an early age and brought up under the care of his uncle Abu Talib. Later he worked as a merchant . around age 40 he got his first revelation from God . and a couple years later whala you got your good Prophet Muhammad preaching publicly. Muhammad gained few followers early on, and was met with hostility from some Meccan tribes. In 632, a few months after returning to Medina from his Farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and died.
Malacca
it is located in the southern region of the Malay peninsula on the Straits of Malacca it borders Negeri . umm dunno what eles to say? Before the arrival of the first Sultan, Malacca was a simple fishing village. The state of Malacca covers an area of 1,950-km2.
Mamluks
check it this is pretty cool. They were soldier of slave origin who had converted to Islam. Starting around 850 AD, the Abbasid caliphs captured or bought young boys who were not Muslims as slaves and brought them up to be Sunni Muslim soldiers in a slave army. These men made a great army and there soon got to be more and more Mamluks. From 1293 to 1340, the sultan al-Nasir enjoyed an unusually long reign of 47 years! The Mamluks were very powerful, and his court was very rich with gold and all kinds of luxuries.
Kingdom of Kongo
In the middle of the fifteenth century, the Kongo Kingdom was the most powerful of a series of states along Africa's west coast known as the Middle Atlantic kingdoms. Kongo was the first kingdom on the west coast of central Africa to come into contact with Europeans. One of the reasons for the success of the kongo was their willingness to assimilate the inhabitants they conquered rather than to try to become their overlords. The people of the area thus gradually became one and were ruled by leaders with both religious and political authority.
Maghrib
The Maghrib prayer, prayed just after sunset, is the fourth of five formal daily prayers (salat) performed by practicing Muslims.The formal daily prayers of Islam comprise different numbers of units, called rak'at. The Maghrib prayer has three obligatory (fard) rak'at. The first two fard rak'at are prayed aloud, and the third is prayed silently.To be considered valid salat, the formal daily prayers must each be performed within their own prescribed time period
Dhimmis
Dhimmis are otherwise known has “People of the book.” This term was what the Muslims called originally called Jews and Christians in their empire, however, as the Muslims expanded their empire, this term later included Hindus, Buddhist, and Zoroastrians. Muslims overlords let Dhimmis keep their local religions and legal systems intact, they did however impose commercial and property taxes on Dhimmis. This term has existed from 7th century C.E. and in modern times refers to all non-Muslims living on Islamic lands outside Mecca.
Dhows
Dhows are traditional Arab sailing vessels used in the Indian Ocean. They usually have lateen (triangular) sails which later influenced European ship design. They were originally used to transport luxary products for the Muslims by following the seasonal monsoon winds. They are sometimes still used in modern times.
Five pillars
The Five pillars are the basic principles that must be accepted and followed by all believers, they provide a basis for underlying religious unity. The Five pillars were taught by Muhammad when he started the religion in 610 C.E. The Five pillars are
Shrivijaya
Shrivijaya is a ancient Malay empire based on the island of Sumatra, in modern day Indonesia. Its first proof of existence was in 7th century and it lasted until its collapse in the 13th century. Little is known about it and it was forgotten after its fall. However its fall did pave the way for the introduction of Islam to the Southeast Asia.
Sufis
Sufis are wandering Islamic Mystics who seek a personal union with Allah. They tried to see beyond what they believed to be the illusionary existence of everyday life and to delight in the presence of Allah in the world, but still insisted on a clear distinction between humans and Allah. They started in the later Abbasid period.
Demographic transition
Demographic transition is used to represent the transition a country makes from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates it develops. It was developed in 1929 by Warren Thompson. He observed changes, or transitions, in birth and death rates in industrialized societies over the previous 200 years in order to help come up with the model.
Demography
Demography is the study of human populations. It can be applied to any kind of human population that changes over time. It includes the study of the size and distribution of these populations, along with the changes in response to birth, migration, aging and death in the populations.
Baghdad
Abbasid’s new capital was established after defeating the Umayyad caliphs in 762 CE, it was located in Iraq near the ancient Persian capital, Ctesiphon. It had an absolutist government even more than the Umayyads. Over the next few years, Baghdad became the center of education and culture
Battle of River Zab
The victory of the Abbasids over the Umayyads in a battle near the Tigris in 750 CE under the rule of al-Abbas. The main factors that led to this battle were that the Umayyads caliphs were corrupt and self devoted, hence many opposing groups allied with the Abbasids, including the Shi’ites and the mawali. This battle resulted in the conquest of Syria and capture of the Umayyad capital
Battle of Siffin
Battle fought in 657 CE between the forces of Ali and the Umayyads
The Thousand and One Nights sultan
Also known as the Arabian Nights, these are a collection of stories which were transmitted orally and over the centuries translated into many languages, this dates back as early as the 9th century. The stories relate that the sultan Shahriyar, who was deeply in loved with his wife was betrayed by her. In consequence, he executed her and vowed to take a new wife every night and kill her in the morning. Scheherazade spent the night with her sister and the sultan and told stories but stopped before finishing so that the sultan would cancel her execution for the next day. Similarly, every night she told unfinished tales for 1,001 nights until the sultan was convinced that she was loyal to him and he revoked the death sentence.
Axum
Also known as Ethiopia, The rise of Axum dates back to 300 BCE when it defeated the kingdom of Kush. Axum’s main port was Adulis which was a center of trade in the Mediterranean and the east. Slaves, ivory, and salt were transported through the Indian Ocean and gradually started trading with Egypt, Rome, Byzantine, and India. It was the only African state that developed a written language. It became the refuge for the Muslims persecuted in Mecca, hence when it became one of the few non-Muslims states in Africa, Muslims never forced it to convert due to the respect they had for Axum.
Bantu migration
The Bantu people lived south of the Sahara, in Nigeria. Their major impact in Africa was the introduction of the smelting of iron, the use of iron tools, the spread of agriculture, and the Swahili language which was a mixture of Bantu and Arab. They were a stateless society controlled by lineages and age sets. The Bantu created one of the greatest migrations in history by moving south and east around 1500 BCE. This lasted for 2000 years probably in search for a more adequate climate and to increase the population.
Hijra
The migration of the prophet Muhammed along with many of his followers in the year 622 between Mecca and Medina after being warned of several planned assassination attempts because of his raiding and criminal activities in Mecca. They escaped from this assassination by going to the rival city Medina.
Imam
An Islamic leader, who usually leads worship at the mosque, the Imams help spiritually guide those in trouble, and answer any questions in relation to the faith. They originated in the Middle East almost immediately after Islam’s rise. In the Sunni branch, they are more of community leaders since clergy are forbade, and do not play an important role in the religion, but in the Shiite branch, they play a more prominent role, similar to a Jewish Rabbi.
Islam
This monotheistic faith was founded by Muhammed in the 7th century. It rapidly spread through Africa, India, and even parts of Europe immediately after its birth. Known for conquest and expansion, they were feared as pirate raiders. At the close of the eleventh century, a united Europe attempted to recapture the territory that had been taken earlier by Islamic raiding.
Saladin
Living between 1138 and 1193 AD in the Islamic Middle East, he is a famous sultan who is noted for reuniting Islamic forces against the crusading armies of Christian Europe. After his conquests, the majority of the reclaimed European land was raided again.
Sati
The Hindu practice of burning widows at the husbands funeral that was later adopted by high class Muslims who had invaded the Indian area. This practice is believed to have originated in about 400 AD in Guptan India. The practice of Sati was made illegal in India in the year 1829, and is no longer a common practice.
Ghana
A west African country that is believed to be first inhabited in 1200 BC. Ghana, like the majority of Africa, was invaded by Islamic raiders. Ghana is known for its wealth attributed to the slave trade, and gold mines.
Great Zimbabwe
During the 11th-15th century, Zimbabwe was a Bantu speaking region that is noted for its creation of a large monumental structure called the Great Zimbabwe. located in southern Africa. Zimbabwe was first foreignly inhabited in the eighteenth century.
Umayyad
One of the clans of the Quraysh Bedouin tribe. The Umayyad clan dominated Mecca in c.600 C.E. – c.700 C.E. The Umayyad played a significant role in Islam and Muhammad’s life. The Umayyad notables who dominated Meccan life saw Muhammad as a threat to them. Muhammad’s success later caused the downfall of the Umayyad dynasty in Mecca. The Umayyad declined due to the internal tensions of the Sunni and Shi’is and their own addiction to luxury and soft living.
Umma
The umma or community of the faithful, transcended old tribal boundaries, and it made possible a degree of political unity undreamed of before Muhammad’s time. Islam provided a single and supernaturally sanctioned source of authority and discipline. With unity, the skills and energies that the Bedouins had once been channeled toward warring with each other were turned outward in a burst of conquest that is perhaps unmatched in human history in its speed and extent.
Buyids
In 945, the Buyids of Persia, which was a dynasty from Persia, invaded the heartlands of the Abbasid Empire and captured Baghdad. From this point onward, the caliphs were controlled by families such as the Buyids. Buyid leaders took the title of sultan and soon they and their dependents became the rulers of what was left of the Abbasid Empire. Later in 1055 the Buyids lost their control over the caliphate and the Seljuk Turks invaded and forced the Buyids out.
Chaitanya
Chaitanya was a Hindu mystic during the 15th century. He was considered a holy man who composed songs that focused on love for Hindu deities and set out to convince Indian Muslims to renounce Islam in favor of Hinduism. Therefore religious experts grew increasingly aware of the dangers Hinduism posed for Islam. Attempts to fuse the two faiths were rejected on the grounds that although Hindus might argue some rituals or beliefs, of Islam, were not essential. Chaitanya also can mean “spiritual consciousness”.
Stateless societies Ifriqiya
Stateless societies in Africa, emerged c. 800 C.E., were often large and very extensive. Some may have had forms of governments to administrate processes, but authority would be usually a ruler of a family and little concentrations of authority. Often time’s stateless societies had no taxes. Although many stateless societies thrived in Africa, some may have found it difficult to resist external pressures, mobilize for warfare, organize large building projects, or create stable conditions for continuous long-distance trade with other people and therefore became state-building societies.
Sudanic states
Sudanic states, during the 8th century, often were led by the patriarch or council of elders or a particular family or group of lineages that established control over its neighbors. Most states had territorial cores. These states were conquest states, which drew on the taxes, tribute, and military support of the areas, lineages, and villages. The rulers were considered sacred which led to resistance from conversion of Islam. Many of the Sudanic states such as Mali and Songhay are examples of the fusion of Islamic and indigenous African cultures, which led into very diverse cultures throughout the Sudanic States.
Sunni
When the Songhay Kingdom was forged, Sunni Ali (1464-1492) ruled. Sunni Ali was a great tactical commander and a ruthless leader. His cavalry expanded the borders and seized the traditional trading cities of Timbuktu and Jenne. Although a Muslim, he met any challenge to his authority even when it came from the Muslim scholars of Timbuktu, whom he persecuted. Sunni Ali was followed by a line of Muslim rulers who took the military title askia. One of the rulers, Askia Muhammad the Great, extended the boundaries of the Songhay Empire by the mid 16th century that it dominated central Sudan.
Mawali
This term was used most frequently during the Muslim Arabs conquests of the 7th century. During the conquests many non-Arabs such as Persians, Turks, and Egyptians converted to Islam. All converts were second class citizens and they were forced to pay the tax that nonbelievers had to pay. They were also excluded from participating in the government and military until the end of the Umayyad Caliphate. However, under the Abbasid Caliphate in the 9th century the mawali had an important role in the military. When the Abbasid Caliphate began to fragment around 900ce several mawali groups rose to power and limited the power of the Abbasid Caliph into Baghdad.
Mecca
This was and is still considered a holy site to the Muslim people. Mecca was the hometown of the prophet Muhammad (570-632ce), the founder of Islam and an important trading center. It was in Mecca that Muhammad had his first revelation in 610ce and began to preach the new faith. It was the site of the battle between Muhammad’s supporters and the Quraysh and the pilgrimage to this city is one of the five pillars of Islam. With Mecca at its center Islam began a rapid expansion into North Africa, Asia and several parts of Europe.
Muhammad of Guhr
He was a tenacious military leader in the 12th century.. His strings of victorious conquests brought the Indus valley and much of central India under his command. He also extended his reach along the Gangetic plain and into the rest of India. He was assassinated in 1206. His military lifestyle extended the influence of the Muslim Empire and they continued to rule India for the next 300 years.
Pan
This is an Indian food consisting of limestone wrapped in betel leaves. During Muslim occupation of India many Muslims adapted or adopted many Indian traditions such as food and styles of dress. Chewing pan was just another tradition that the Muslims adopted from India. This assimilation of cultures changed the traditional way of Muslim life to duplicate some Indian traditions.
Ibn Batuta
He was an Islamic scholar and traveler (c.1304–1368ce), famous for the accounts of his travels called the Rihla. He traveled near Mali and recounted the great security travelers were given. It was said that his travels lasted for almost thirty years and covered almost the entire known Islamic world. He’s considered one of the most famous travelers.
Islamization
It’s a term used to describe the process of a society’s or a civilization’s conversion to Islam and the Muslim way of living. This conversion process also includes assimilating the native religious practices, culture, and traditional Muslim holy sites. This process is one the key elements of that made the massive Islamic empire so successful and prominent, helping it grow from tribes of nomads to spanning over pats of Asia, India, the Middle East, and Africa.
Muslims
followers of the religion Islam and its prophet Muhammad since the 7th century. They conquered an empire extending from Spain in the west to central Asia in the east. Their empire combined the classical civilizations of Greece, Egypt, and Persia.They spread their religion through merchants, wandering mystics, and warriors across Africa, Asia, and southern Europe. Muslim conquerors captured Asia Minor and advanced into the European heartland of Islam's great rival, Christendom. Muslims merchants cooperated with Jews, Armenians, Indians, and others, therefore establishing key link between civilizations from the western Mediterranean to the South China Sea.They elevated the language of Arabic to the status of of the international language of the educated and informed through works in philosophy, science, literature, and mathematics. Their civilization excelled by building on the knowledge of previous classical civilizations.
Qur'an
book written in Arabic containing the revelations that were transmitted from Allah to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel starting from 610 or earlier to 632. The teachings and injunctions of the Quran formed the basis of the new religion (Islam) that Muhammad began to preach to his clan and the people of Mecca. The Quran was put together shortly after Muhammad's death.Muslims believe that the Quran contains the actual words of God. They use the Quran as a basis for their social and personal life and their religious responsibilities. The Quran, along with the Bible, is one of the most influential texts in history as a result of how largely they have come to be known.
Lateen Sails
the earliest fore and raft sail, triangular sails that were used on Arab dhows (though possibly imported from Egypt or the Persian Gulf) as early as the 2nd century. They allowed ships to sail with and against the wind which greatly increased the potential of a sailing ship. The Arabs used it very effectively causing it to spread rapidly throughout the Mediterranean which sparked a come back in medieval commerce. When combined with the square sail, a ship could cross the ocean. Unlike, the ancient square sail, with the lateen sail, you did not have to sail only before the wind. The lateen sail increased trade profits during the Abassid Empire. This money was reinvested in commercial enterprises, land purchases, great mansions, and charity (as required by the Quran). A good deal of the wealth that came from improved trade was also spent on mosques, schools, and baths.
Mahmud of Ghazni
third ruler of the Turkish slave dynasty that led invasions causing reversal of Muslim retreat from Indian borders. He seized power of Afghanistan (north of the Indus valley) in 962. He was drawn by the legendary wealth of the Indian subcontinent and a zeal to spread the Muslim faith. Consequently, he repeatedly raided northwestern India in the first decades of the 11th century, defeating many confederations of Hindu princes and driving deeper into the subcontinent in search of even richer temples to loot. Raids led by Mahmud and others resulted in sustained campaigns aimed at seizing political control in northern India towards the end of the 12 century. Mahmud of Ghazni ultimately initiated the Ghaznavid dynasty in northern India and became sultan of the kingdom of Ghazna (998–1030) which expanded from Afghanistan and northeastern modern Iran to northwestern India and most of Iran. He turned the capital, Ghazna, into a cultural center comparable to Baghdad.
Mali
empire centered between the Senegal and Niger rivers comprising of the Malinke peoples who broke away from Ghana in the 13th century. It ruled a large portion of west Africa from the 13th to 15th centuries. Mali formed from the Keita clan of the Malinke people (after defeating the Susu tribe) when tribes under Ghana began exerting their independence since the nomadic Almavorids of the Sahara devastated Ghana's main trading centers. Mali became mostly Muslim as a result of economic potential and protections from attacks from those such as the Almavorids. Mali's power over gold, salt, diamonds, and copper production helped it prosper along with agricultural advancements and slave labor. All this as well as production of jewelry, textile, and wood carvings led to material greatness. The leader of Mali in 1230, Sundiata (Lion Prince) brought other tribes under control to create the unified state that became the Mali Empire.
Mani
"blacksmith"
Quraysh
The dominant tribe in the city of Mecca and the tribe in which Muhammad was born into. Sometime in the early sixth century, the Quraysh took control of the sanctuary in Mecca and established themselves as prosperous merchants. Clan rivalries, however, caused a split within the tribes. Many of the clans began to persecute the followers of Muhammad during the early years of Islam, causing Muhammad to flee to Medina. After Muhammad’s conquest of Mecca, he pardoned his oppressors and peace was maintained. After Muhammad’s death, clan rivalries reignited causing divisions. According to Sunni political theory, the caliph must be of the Quraysh tribe.
Ramadan
The ninth month of the Muslim calendar and the holy month for fasting. For Muslims, Ramadan is a period of self-examination, communal prayer in the mosque, and reading of the Quran. Ramadan, however, is less a period of atonement that it is a time for Muslims to practice self-restraint. Between dawn and dusk, people must refrain from food, drink, and all forms of immoral behavior. At the end of the day, festive nighttime meals, called iftars, are common. Children, pregnant women, the old, and the sick may be exempt from Ramadan. The end of the Ramadan fast is celebrated with a feast called “Id al-Fitr”.
Hulegu
(B.C.E. 1217- C.E. 1265) Mongol ruler in Iran and grandson of Genghis Khan. He was appointed to extend Mongol power into Islamic areas. He founded the Il-Khanid Dynasty and seized and sacked Baghdad (the religious and cultural capital of Islam) as part of a Mongol program of subduing the Islamic world. Some historians consider that he did more than anyone else to destroy medieval Iranian culture. He captured Syria, but was defeated by an Egyptian army in 1260. He then returned to Iran, settling in the province of Azerbaijan.
Kabir
(B.C.E. 1440- C.E. 1518) Iconoclastic Indian poet-saint revered by Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs alike. His mother was of the Brahman caste, but Kabir was adopted by a Muslim weaver. His early life began as a Muslim and he later became influenced by the Hindu ascetic Ramananda. Kabir openly criticized all sects and gave a new direction to the Indian philosophy. He was equally critical of both Hinduism and Islam, often viewing them as parallel to one another in their misguided ways. Despite his criticisms, he is respected and even admired by Indians of all religious and ethnic backgrounds. Kabir’s legacy is today carried forward by the Kabir Panth, a religious community that recognizes him as its founder.
Matrilineal
A matrilineal society is exactly the opposite of a patrilineal society. In matrilineal societies, inheritance and descent is determined through the female line. The woman is the ruler of the house. It is the sole responsibility of the woman to look after, earn, and feed her husband. Few matrilineal societies still exist on the earth. However there are small pockets in various parts of the globe.
Muhammad
Founder and prophet of the religion of Islam. He was born around 570 C.E. into the Quraysh tribe. As a child, he and his uncle Abu Talib often went on caravan journeys were he met adherents of the Christian and Jewish faiths, who later influenced his teachings. In his adolescence, Muhammad took up residence in Mecca. As a trader and traveler, Muhammad was aware of the new religious currents that were sweeping Arabia and became increasingly dissatisfied with a life focused on material gain. Around 610 C.E., Allah transmitted many revelations to him via the angel Gabriel. These revelations were later collected in the Quran. In the beginning, Muhammad’s following was small, but after fleeing to Medina due to murder plots by the threatened Ummayads, he gained many followers through his wisdom and skill. He later returned to Mecca, where he defeated the Ummayads and converted the population to Islam.