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136 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Selective Language Impairment
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language impairment in the absence of obvious cognitive deficits
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Williams syndrome
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good language skills in the presence of severe cognitive impairments
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What do SLI and Williams syndrome tell us
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Evidence for modularity (cognition vs. language)
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Down Syndrome
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genetic condition (extra chromosome) causing physical & intellectual developmentally delays
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language impairment in Down Syndrome
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late canonical babbling, phonological development slow, intelligibility problems remain; late appearance of first words (~24 mo), lexicon lags behind mental age but comprehension on par; MLU rises slowly & plateaus, morphological marks used spradically; grammar impaired but pragmatics intact
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Autism
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delays cognitive and language skills, spectrum disorder typically with IQ 50-70, 4X more frequent in males
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language impairment in autism
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50% never develop expressive language; early mutism & non-recognition of speech, little interest in communication; early lack of preference for IDS, responsiveness to own name; echolalia (lack of comprehension?); syntactic development delayed but normal, vocabulary lacking mental state words, few questions, impaired perception & production of prosody, pragmatics
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high functioning autism
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normal to high IQ; impaired social awareness, theory of mind; excellent memory, impaired comprehension, often exhibit savant abilities
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Sally puts a marble in basket & leaves, Anne moves the marble to a box. Where will DS subjects say Sally will look? ND? Autistic?
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ND & DS - the basket, autistic - the box (even though autistic kids have higher IQ than DS
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absence of joint attention at 18 mos is predictive of
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autism - may lead to mapping errors due to failure to monitor gaze
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Describe Baron-Cohen et al (1997) study of object labelling with autistic children
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matched kids with autism to children with cognitive impairments; tested mapping of novel word to novel object; control pretest asked to identify 2 familiar objects drawn from a set of 4 (for comprehension), test labelling 2 novel objects from set of 4 by drawing out of bag with 2 new objects and 2 from pretest-> discrepant condition (experimenter waits until child looks at own toy, then looks at hers and says the word) vs. Follow in condition (looks at the child's toy &says the word)-> autistic children made more errors in discrepant condition, choosing object they were looking at themselves
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differences in Down syndrome & autism language development are evidence for what
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dissociation between language structure and language use
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language acquisition in the blind
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more difficulty with sound distinctions aided by visual info like place of articulation, babbling onset same, vocalize less in adult presence, first words same age, same types of gestures but low rate
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What similarities and differences did Iverson et al (2000) longitudinal study (14-28mos) in gesture use of blind & sighted toddlers?
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same types of gestures: poiting, conventional, reach/request; sighted had high rate of gesture early on, blind low rate throughout, sighted pointed, blind use flat palms out more, blind use more gestures for close objects & more touching of object
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word learning in the blind
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first words acquired at same age as sighted, can't use eye gaze to infer meaning (less joint attention) so less incidental learning and fewer contextual cues to meaning, more words for sound-associated objects and fewer for objects seen but not touched, fewer overgeneralizations, more undergeneralization; infrequent error-prone use of deictic terms like this and that, prolonged errors in pronoun use because adults avoid them, delay in auxiliary verb use
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What did Landau * Gleitman find regarding sight-related words in blind children
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comprehending see -> proper responses e.g. Turning back toward speaker for "let me see your back", look means apprehend or explore with hands rather than touch vs. Sighted blindfolded kids still turn eyes toward; produce look and see correctly e.g. Look for command, but not see (maybe from syntactic frames), errors in deictic terms (this that)
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primary determinant of language outcome in deaf children
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language environment
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Prelingual deafness:
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loss of hearing prior to language acquisition
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distribution of sign language vs. Oralist environment for deaf children
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~10% deaf children with deaf parent, 90% deaf children (hearing parents)
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acquisition of sign language for children exposed to sign from birth
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major milestones reach earlier but same timing for referential words, same stages in same order (babbling, single-sign, multisign, + morphology, + syntax), same types of processes (overregularization, pronoun reversal errors)
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oral language in deaf
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uses lip reading but is only partial cue to sounds, phonological development abnormal, lexical development delayed w/ more variable outcomes, syntactic development delayed w' plateaus, ~15-50% produce intelligible speech
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cochlear implant
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electronic device that provides electrical stimulation directly to the nerve fibers
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Tye-Murray found what regarded cochlear implants in children
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acquire language more effectively than kids with same hearing loss using hearing aids -> better vocab growth, incidental learning & suprasegmental features
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limitations of cochlear implants
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degraded acoustic input, early auditory deprivation, poor reception of music, noisy environments & running speech hard to understand -> requires intensive training; benefits influenced by communication system used before implant, age of implantation & duration of deafness, desire to communicate orally, pre- or post-lingual deafening, speech processing strategy in implant itself
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Pidgin
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simplified language developed for communication by speakers of different languages, oft. In trade/slave situations, learned as 2nd language
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Creole
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pidgins natively acquired by children increase in grammatical complexity & regularization, becomes full-fledged language
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Nicaraguan Sign Language
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creation of vocational school provided opportunity for interaction - not instructed in sign, developed from informal home gesture systems: first gen made it & regularized it, next gen learned & changed it to full-blown complex language: generations differ in spatial grammar
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What did Senghas & Coppola, 2001 find regarding Nicaraguan sign language?
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Spatial agreement study: when sign a noun & its adjective or verb & object you sign them in same spatial location -> task was to view video and sign story to deaf peer -> early-exposed students from gen 2 more modulations than early-exposed from gen 1, no difference between later-exposed gen2 and gen1 -> young children change the language
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ways to study language development from behavior genetic approach
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Look at variation in rate of development, study contribution of heredity to variation -> twin studies to parse environment vs. Genetics
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what have twin studies revealed about language development
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25-60% of variance attributable to genetics - genetics more closely tied to variation in grammatical abilities than vocab; environmental studies show more influenceof env't on vocab than grammar
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evidence for genetic contributions to LD
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twin study genetics for grammar, language impairment runs in family (e.g. KE family)
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KE family
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inability to construct syntactic rules for tense, number, gender; poor speech articulation; general orofacial dyspraxia; slightly lower ; intelligrance than unaffected family members; FOXP2 gene implicated
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FOXP2 gene
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found in KE family -> affects expression of unknown # of other genes, involved in development of brain & lungs in many species, affects song learning in songbirds -> not a SPEECH gene
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Characteristics of SLI
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late onset of talking; delay & deficient use of grammatical morphology; delay of grammatical morphology relative to syntax (unusual ansynchrony)
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Possible linguistic causes of SLI?
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difficulty/delay in underlying linguistic mechanism - learning implicit rules for marking; deficit in processing brief/rapidly changing sounds (trouble reporting order of rapid sounds -> function words are brief & reduced, speech is rapid); poor phonological memory (poor nonsense word repetition)
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Possible nonlinguistic causes of SLI?
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slow information processing + limited phonological memory; genetic factors (but, some people with SLI do not have family incidence) ... May be different for phonological vs. Grammatical SLI
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What is neurolinguistics?
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study of the relation between the brain & language functioning, asks where, if there are modules for different parts of language processing, what about brain allows language acquisition.
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What is aphasia?
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disruption of language processing caused by brain lesion.
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Types of aphasia
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Broca's aphasia, Wernicke's -
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Broca's aphasia
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damage to Broca's area near motor areas controlling lips and tongue – disfluent speech, lacks grammatical structure
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Wernicke's aphasia
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Wernicke's area near auditory areas – fluent speech, many neologisms & poor comprehension
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What is a split brain patient?
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severed corpus callosum
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Techniques used to study brain during language processing in normal people
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WADA test, fMRI, ERP, NIRS
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Pros & cons of NIRS
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Ok spatial and temporal resolution, bad for babies
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Pros & cons of ERP
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Great temporal resolution, poor spatial resolution, requires many trials because signals are small
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Pros & cons of fMRI
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Great spatial resolution (“where”), poor temporal, bad for baby studies
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Event-related potentials (ERPs)
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Measuring electrical activity in response to particular stimulus events
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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
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Measuring oxygenation in the blood (via magnetic field)
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Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
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Measuring oxygenation in the blood (via infrared light)
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What have neuroimaging studies shown about language and the brain in infants?
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left hemisphere bias for forward & backward speech, even in newborns; similar pattern of electrical response as adults for phoneme discrimination – categorical perception with less activity
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Equipotentiality hypothesis
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LH is not specialized for language at birth, but language shifts there during maturation
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Invariance hypothesis
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LH is specialized for language from birth
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Damage to RH leads to
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problems with intonation, emotional tone, understanding jokes, sarcasm, figurative language, indirect language (all pragmatic functions)
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Damage to LH leads to
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demonstration of RH's limited syntactic abilities
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What are critical features of human languages?
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referential, combinatorial & creative, intentional
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What features of human language are shared with other animal communication systems?
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developmental patterns – bird song development has sensitive period; reference in vervet calls, chimps but not creativity & intentionalits; cognitive & social prerequisites
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What cognitive ans cial prerequisites for language are shared by other animals
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statistical learning for adjacent & nonadjacent dependencies in cotton-top tamarins; chimps understand that others have goals, intentions & knowledge
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General outcome of attempt to teach non-human primates language
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chimps can learn sign but MLU does not increase, less spontaneous, no turn-taking, long utterances repetitive
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Evidence for the equipotentiality hypothesis
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childhood aphasia – better/faster recovery than adults from LH damage & RH damage before language acquisition causes delays; degree of lateralization increases with age/experience
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Evidence for the invariance hypothesis
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Anatomy – certain structures larger on left from birth; imagine – evidence of early LH specialization; aphasia – more likely to follow LH than RH damage in children
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critical period hypothesis
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biologically determined period during which language acquisition must occur; Some environmental input is necessary for normal development but biology determines when organism is responsive to that input
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what would the relationships between language abilities and age look like if there is a critical period?
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regularity in milestones regardless of environmental circumstances, unable to regain skill if blocked in development, drop-off in acquisition abilities over a critic time-span, not merely a linear decline of acquisition with age!
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Evidence for a critical period in language
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developmental milestones analogous to other biologically based behaviors, universal regularity in milestones, recovery from aphasia in kids more frequent than adults, wild children either don't speak or acquire vocabulary but not morphosyntax skills, late learners of ASL have worse mastery of grammar despite many many years of use – no problem with vocab or basic word order
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What would the relationships between language abilities and age look like if there is an age-related decline in acquisition ability?
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Linear inverse correlation between age and success of acquisition, with no discontinuity across what would be the “critical period”
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Why is there a decline in language acquisition ability?
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language faculty, biological factors, different input, social-psychological factors, cognitive factors
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Less is More hypothesis (Newport)
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a cognitive explanation for decline in LA: children can store & analyze only small chunks of input – limitations may lead to better learning if it's easier to figure out structure if analyze small chunks
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evidence for Less is More
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late learners produce frozen forms “you wanna one” - children make different errors (of omission – he go)
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What aspects of language seem to be most affected by AOA?
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foreign accent, grammar, morphosyntax; vocabulary & basic word order fine
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What are pidgins vs. Creoles?
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Pidgin: simplified language developed for communication by speakers of different languages learned by adults as 2nd language; Creole is what happens when children natively acquire pidgin – increased grammatical complexity and regularization – becomes new language
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What is interesting about Nicaraguan Sign Language & how it has developed?
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Modern language creation – school NOT taught in sign language!; first generation of children at school for deaf developed system, next generation developed it into a complex language with grammar e.g. Early-exposed use more spatial modulations (movement morphemes) – late-learners from both generations look the same
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Behavior genetic approach
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Look at variation in rate of language development, Study contribution of heredity to variation - e.g. Twin studies
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What aspects of language seem to be more affected by genetics?
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Variation in grammatical abilities mo related to genetics than vocabulary - vocab influenced by environment
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Specific language impairment (SLI)
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language impairment in absence of other impairments – both in production & comprehension, runs in families; delay & deficit in use of grammatical morphology, delay of grammatical morphology with respect to syntax
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Possible causes of SLI?
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1) Difficulty or delay in underlying linguistic mechanism for learning implicit rules re: marking tense & number; 2) Deficit in processing brief or rapidly changing auditory stimuli ; 3) Poor phonological memory; 4) nonlinguistic cogintive problems – slow information processing + phonological memory problem; 5) genetics (but some have no family incidence)
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What's a double dissociation?
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demonstration that two experimental manipulations each have different effects on two dependent variables – tells us there are different underlying systems
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Williams Syndrome
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missing genetic material on chromosome 7, low IQ but outgoing & talkative; can't solve standard cognitive problems, big problem with visuospatial abilities, language skills far above mental age (though below chronological age) – can give definitions, impressive vocab, can generate words in a category
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Why is it interesting to compare SLI and Williams syndrome?
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possible modularity of nonverbal and verbal cognition - the genetic double dissociation is striking…. The genes of one group of children [SLI] impair their grammar while sparing their intelligence; the genes of another group of children [WS] impair their intelligence while sparing their grammar
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Language development in Williams syndrom
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delayed, word spurt before categorization, deficits in morph-syntactic knowledge -> may rely on rote memory
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How do children with Down Syndrome and Autism differ in their language abilities?
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DS has impaired grammar but intact pragmatics & communicative language; autistic has deficits in Theory of Mind, prosody & pragmaticseven in high-functioning people
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prelingually deaf
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born with severe hearing loss or loss of hearing before have acquired langauge
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otitis media
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periodic fluid buildup in middle ear or middle ear infections - causes temporary hearing impairment -> puts children at risk for language delay , but appear to catch up by age 5
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sign language
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manual language used in the deaf community
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language environments of prelingually deaf children
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10% exposed to sign language from birth b/c of deaf parent, 90% depends on parents - some used oralist method
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oralist netgid
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deaf children coached in producing speech and trained in reading lips - based in mistaken belief that acquiring sign language would interfere with acquisition of spoken language
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total communication
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an approach to deaf education - goal is mastery ofspoken English but oral language is combined with signing system
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American Sign Language
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has a lexicon, lexical items have sublexical components such as hand shape and place of articulation, has a grammar; has some iconic signs but these are conventionalized
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developmental stages in ASL
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manual babbling; snigle-sign productions; multisign combinations; more morphological development & more complex syntax
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evidence of similar processes underlying acquisition of sign
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ovverregulariazation errors, resistence to corrections, pronoun reversal errors at same age as children who speak, don't make errors typical of late learners even when learning from hearing parents who make those mistakes
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oral language development in deaf children
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less communicative but increases & more likely to direct others' behavior than ask questions; do not develop canonical babbling with clear syllables but can have phonological awareness butlimited which may hurt literacy; vocabulary development is delayed & slow; syntactic development delayed and endpoint falls short of normal competence
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home sign
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deaf children in hearing families spontaneously use gestures to communicate - invented words with grammatical categories but not full language with morphology & complete syntax
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cochlear implant
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directly stimulates auditory nerve - deaf children who get them between 3 and 5 start developing langauge at same rate as other children but outcomes are variable
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evidence that suggests language deveopment is not the next step after gestures in a continuous course of development
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1) pronoun confusion similar in sign & spoken language; 2) similarity of signs to prelinguistic pointing gestures doesn't help their acquisition as signs
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language development in blind children
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sometimes fail to appropriately generalize meanings of words (e.g. Object labels for particular referents), frequently rely on rote-memorized speech for conversation, grammatical development unaffected)
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language development in Down Syndrome
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delayed relative to mental anc chronological age, conversationally competent but most don't reach adult level linguistic ocmpetence
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language development in Williams syndrome
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language skills far exceed nonlinguistics mental abilities, language acquisition is delayed & follows different course - have word spurt before learn to label objects
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language development in autism
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language delay and deviance - many essentially nonverbal, some show mophosyntactic impairment like SLI, high-functioning autistic can have normal vocab & grammar development but use language strangely for coomunication
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spcific language impairment (SLI)
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more trouble acquiring grammatical morphology than syntax or vocabulary but these may also be delayed, exacerbated but not caused by environment, evidence for genetic basis, deficits in nonlinguistic cognition, innate grammar & phonological percepption & memory
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visual information is more important for forming ____ than for forming grammatical categories and rules
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conceptual categories
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extended optional infinitive hypothesis
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idea that all children go through a stage in which verbs are produced without inflection - in SLI this stage is longer than normal
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developmental dysphasia
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condition where child's reading ability is lower than expected based on IQ
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echolalic speech
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speech that repeats part of what the previous speaker said - characteristic of autism
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chatterbox syndrome
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disorder with severe mental retardation but remarkable linguistic abilities
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Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
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Strong version: without language, we lack concepts; Weak version: language shapes concepts (linguistic determinism vs. linguistic relativity)
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What does the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis predict?
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adults should show
differences in cognition as a function of native language, cognitive differences between children should only emerge after/during LA |
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What is an absolute vs. relative reference system?
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absolute : based
on cardinal directions like top, south etc) or relative (to self) frame of reference - English typically uses relative reference |
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Spatial relations study testing the hypothesis of linguistic relativity (Levinson)
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Task: If shown a display on a table and then table is
rotated, do they recreate the display in the same absolute direction or relative to themselves? Results: subjects arranged the animals in a way consistent with linguistic system of their language |
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Study that somewhat contradicts Levinson's spatial relations study
(Li & Gleitman) |
animals-in-a-row task, with
English speakers only in three conditions – Indoors (featureless room with one window) - blinds up or down – Outdoors (grassy area on campus, with trees, buildings surrounding) - Results: English speakers tested in indoors condition had more relative responses (esp with blinds down); tested in outdoors condition had more absolute responses; context influences |
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Bilingual education
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Education in which the curriculum is taught in two languages.
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Code switching
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Changing from one type of language use to another, such as switching from a formal to an informal register when talking to people who differ in status. The term is also used to describe the switching between two languages that is characteristic of bilingual language use.
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immersion program
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A program that teaches children a second language by providing not only language instruction but also regular classes in that second language. It is a form of bilingual education.
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Instrumental motivation
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Interest in learning a second language for utilitarian purposes such as job advancement.
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Integrative motivation
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Interest in learning a second language for the purpose of associating with members of the culture in which that language is spoken.
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language differentiation
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The task of children growing up exposed to two (or more) languages to figure out that they are hearing two different languages rather than one language that is some combination of both.
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language transfer
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Influences of the native language on second language learning.
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metalinguistic awareness
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The conscious awareness of how language works.
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sequential bilingualism
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Bilingualism that results from a person's learning a second language after acquisition of the first language is well under way.
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simultaneous bilingualism
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Bilingualism that results from a person's being exposed from birth or shortly after birth to two languages.
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Glossary
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Chapter 10
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American Sign Language (ASL)
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The manual language used by the deaf in the United States and the Englishspeaking provinces of Canada. It is not a system of pantomime; rather, it shares the same structural features as other natural languages.
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Autism
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A disorder, with an onset before the age of 30 months, that involves severe social and communicative impairment and may or may not be accompanied by mental retardation.
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chatterbox syndrome
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A disorder characterized by severe mental retardation but remarkable linguistic abilities.
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cochlear implant
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A device surgically implanted in the cochlea that allows a deaf individual to perceive sound by enabling sound to bypass damaged cells in the ear and directly stimulate the auditory nerve. Sound is picked up by an external microphone worn behind the ear, processed, and converted into electrical impulses, which are transmitted to an electrode array implanted in the cochlea.
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developmental dysphasia
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A delay in language development in the absence of any clear sensory or cognitive disorder; also referred to as specific language impairment.
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dissociability (of language and cognition)
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The independence of one function from the other, which would imply that each function relies on a separate underlying mental capacity.
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extended optional infinitive hypothesis
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The notion that all children go through a stage in which verbs are produced without inflection, that is, they optionally appear in their infinite form without the endings that mark person, tense, and aspect, and that in children with specific language impairment, this stage lasts longer than normal.
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familial concentration
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The rate of occurrence of a particular characteristic (such as specific language impairment) within a family. High familial concentration suggests a genetic basis.
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grammatical morphology
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The structure of words that results from combining word roots with endings that mark grammatical relations, such as the -s at the end of verbs to mark agreement with a third-person subject (he runs) or the -ed at the end of verbs to mark the past tense. Grammatical morphology is also known as inflectional morphology.
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dominant language switch hypothesis
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The hypothesis that children tend to learn a second language more completely than adults do because children, more than adults, tend to switch to the second language as their dominant language and use it more.
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dichotic listening task
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An experimental procedure in which two auditory stimuli are presented simultaneously (one to each ear). The purpose is to infer which cerebral hemisphere is responsible for processing the stimuli on the basis of which stimulus the listener perceives.
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language bioprogram hypothesis
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The hypothesis proposed by Bickerton that humans possess a biologically based, innate linguistic capacity that includes a skeletal grammar. By hypothesis, this capacity underlies both children's language acquisition and the process of creolization and accounts for similarities between child language and creoles.
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lesion method
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The method of investigating the functions performed by different areas of the brain by correlating impaired function with the location of damage to the brain.
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near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
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A method of brain imaging, also known as optical topography, that measures activity in different regions of the brain by using the degree to which light passes between points on the scalp as an indicator of blood oxygenation and thus neural activity.
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plasticity
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The ability of parts of the brain to take over functions they normally would not serve. There is much more plasticity in the child's brain than in the adult's.
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right-ear advantage
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The relatively greater probability that stimuli presented to the right ear in a dichotic listening test will be perceived by the listener. Typically, there is a rightear advantage for linguistic stimuli, which suggests that the left cerebral hemisphere is primarily responsible for processing linguistic stimuli.
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sensitive period
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A term sometimes used instead of critical period to indicate that the ability to acquire language may be greatest during a particular period of development but that later language acquisition is not impossible.
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