Land Navigation & Map Reading

Front 1

(need to know)

What publication covers map reading and land navigation?

Back 1

TC 3-25.26

Hint 1

publication and backwards of m in map

Front 2

What is the art and science of expressing the known physical features of the earth graphically by maps and charts?

Back 2

Cartography

Front 3

(need to know)

What is a map?

Back 3

A map is a graphic representation of a part of the earth’s surface using colors, symbols, & labels.

Front 4

What does a map provide?

Back 4

-Information on the existence of the location and the distance between ground features, such as populated places and routes of travel, and communication-Variations in terrain, heights of natural features, and the extent of vegetation cover

Front 5

Maps are documents that must not fall into unauthorized hands—what is the best method of destruction for maps?

Back 5

Burning and scattering the ashes

Front 6

How are military maps categorized?

Back 6

By scale & type

Front 7

(not so to know)

What is the mathematical scale of a map?

Back 7

The ratio or fraction between the distance on a map and the corresponding distance on the surface of the earth—it determines the ground distance between objects or locations on the map, the size of the area covered, and the amount of detail being shownNote: The representative fraction (RF) is the scale, with the map distance as the numerator and the ground distance as the denominator:Representative fraction (scale) = map distance / ground distanceNote: As the denominator of the representative fraction (ground distance) gets larger and the ratio gets smaller, the scale of the map decreases (2-10)Note: Maps with scales of 1:75,000 and larger are used for tactical, administrative, and logistical planning—these are the maps a Soldier or junior leader are most likely to encounter as opposed to smaller maps with scales of 1:1,000,000 and smaller that are used for general planning and for strategic studies that covers a large land area at the expense of detail (2-10)

Front 8

What is the map of choice for land navigators?

Back 8

The 1:50,000-scale military map

Front 9

What is a topographic map?

Back 9

It portrays terrain features in a measurable way, as well as the horizontal positions of the features represented—the vertical positions, or relief, are normally represented by contour lines on military topographic maps

Front 10

What is a photomap?

Back 10

A reproduction of an aerial photograph upon which grid lines, marginal data, place names, route numbers, important elevations, boundaries, approximate scale, and direction have been added

Front 11

(not so to know)

What is a military city map?

Back 11

(a) A topographic map (usually at 1:12,550-scale, and sometimes up to 1:5,000-scale) showing the details of a city(b) It delineates streets and shows street names, important buildings, and other elements of the landscape significant to navigation and military operations in urban terrain(c) The scale of a military city map depends upon the importance and size of the city, density of detail, and available intelligence information

Front 12

It is important that Soldiers know how to read maps—therefore, where is a good place to begin each time a different map is used?

Back 12

Examine the Marginal information and symbols—this is where useful information about the map is located and explained

Front 13

Where on a map are the commonly used symbols explained?

Back 13

The map’s legend—every effort is made to design standard symbols that resemble the features they represent, however, if this is not possible, symbols are selected that logically imply the features they portray, such as an open-pit mining operation is represented by a small black drawing of a crossed hammer and pickax

Front 14

On maps, topographic symbols are used to represent the natural and man-made features of the earth—what are military symbols used for on maps? (3-6)

Back 14

To show identity, size, location, or movement of Soldiers, military activities, and installations

Note: They are not normally printed on maps because the features and units they represent are constantly moving or changing; military security is also a consideration; however, they do appear in special maps and overlays

Front 15

On a standard large-scale topographic map, what feature does Black; Red-brown; Blue; Green; Brown, and Red represent? (3-7)

Back 15

(a) Black—indicates cultural (man-made) features such as buildings and roads, surveyed spot elevations, and all labels

(b) Red-Brown—are combined to identify cultural features, all relief features, non-surveyed spot elevations, and elevation such as contour lines on red-light readable maps

(c) Blue—identifies hydrography or water features such as lakes, swamps, rivers, and drainage

(d) Green—identifies vegetation with military significance such as woods, orchards, and vineyards

(e) Brown—identifies all relief features and elevation such as contours on older edition maps, and cultivated land on red-light readable maps

(f) Red—classifies cultural features such as populated areas, main roads, and boundaries on older maps

Note: Occasionally, other colors may be used to show special information—as a rule, these are indicated in the marginal information

Front 16

Geographic Coordinates.What is the distance of a point north or south of the equator known as? (4-2)

Back 16

(a) Its latitude—the rings around the earth parallel to the equator are called parallels of latitude, or simply parallels

(b) Lines of latitude run east-west but north-south distances are measured between them

Front 17

(not so to know)

What are the set of rings that run around the globe at right angles to the lines of latitude and pass through the poles known as?

Back 17

(a) Meridians of longitude, or simply meridiansNote: One meridian is established as the prime meridian—the prime meridian of the system we use runs through Greenwich, England and is known as the Greenwich Meridian(b) The distance east or west of a prime meridian to a point is known as its longitude

Front 18

(not so to know)

What is the Mercator projection?

Back 18

(a) Developed by Gerardus Mercator in 1569 as an aid for naval navigators(b) The straight lines of the Mercator projection are loxodromes, or rhumb lines, that represent the lines of a constant compass bearing, which is perfect for determining "true" direction(c) Mercator projection is a poor projection for world maps, but its rectangular grid and shape make it an appealing choice for wall maps, atlas maps, and other maps in books and newspapers published by nongeographers(d) Its popularity caused it to become the most identifiable map projection for most Americans

Front 19

(not so to know)

What does UTM stand for?

Back 19

Universal Transverse MercatorNote: The UTM grid system was adopted by the U.S. Army in 1947 for designating rectangular coordinates on large-scale military mapsNote: The UTM grid was designed to cover that part of the world between latitude 84°N and latitude 80°S, and, as its name implies, is imposed on the transverse Mercator projection

Front 20

(must know)

What is only one rule to remember when reading or reporting grid coordinates?

Back 20

Always read to the RIGHT and then UP—the first half of the reported set of coordinate digits represents the left-to-right (easting) grid label, and the second half represents the label as read from the bottom-to-top (northing)

Front 21

Scale and Distance.What function does the Numerical scale of a map perform? (5-1)

Back 21

(a) It indicates the relationship of distance measured on a map and the corresponding distance on the ground(b) This scale is usually written as a fraction and is called the representative fraction (RF)(c) The RF is always written with the map distance as 1, and is independent of a unit of measure (it could be yards, meters, inches, or something else)Note: An RF of 1/50,000 or 1:50,000 means that one unit of measure on the map is equal to 50,000 units of the same measure on the ground

Front 22

How is the ground distance between two points on a map determined? (5-2)

Back 22

By measuring between the same two points on the map and then multiplying the map measurement by the denominator of the RF or scaleExample: The map scale is 1:50,000 making RF = 1/50,000. The map distance from point A to point B is 5 units. Therefore, 5 x 50,000 = 250,000 units of ground distance

Front 23

What function does the graphic scale on a map provide? (5-7)

Back 23

It is a ruler printed on the map that is used to convert distances on the map to actual ground distancesNote: The graphic scale is divided into two parts. To the right of the zero, the scale is marked in full units of measure and is called the primary scale. To the left of the zero, the scale is divided into tenths and is called the extension scale. The primary scale provides the whole unit distance, while the extension scale provides the divided scale used to determine smaller increments of measure

Front 24

What are four (4) methods to determine distance when it is not possible to use a map? (5-19)

Back 24

(1) Pace count—what is your pace count?(2) Odometer(3) Subtense—visual perspective: the farther away an object is, the smaller it appears(4) Estimate range—the 100-m unit-of-measure and the flash-to-bang methods

Front 25

It is important that Soldiers who navigate while dismounted know their pace count—how does a Soldier use the Pace count method to measure distance? (5-20, 5-21)

Back 25

(a) A pace is equal to one natural step, about 30 inches long(b) To use the pace count method accurately, a Soldier knows how many paces it takes to walk 100 m(c) To determine this, walk an accurately-measured course and count the number of paces it takes to reach 100 m(d) Keep track of the distance traveled when using the pace count—some of these methods are to put a pebble in a pocket every time 100 m have been walked, tie knots in a string, or put marks in a notebookNote: Do not try to remember the count but always use one of these methods, or design another method

Front 26

What are some conditions that affect the Pace count in the field? (5-22)

Back 26

(a) Slopes—a pace lengthens on a down slope and shortens on an upgrade(b) Winds—a head wind shortens the pace and a tail wind increases it(c) Surfaces—sand, gravel, mud, snow, and similar surface materials tend to shorten the pace(d) Elements—falling snow, rain, or ice causes the pace to be reduced in length(e) Clothing—excess clothing and boots with poor traction affect the pace length(f) Visibility—poor visibility such as in fog, rain, or darkness, shortens the pace

Front 27

How does a Soldier use the 100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method? (5-28)

Back 27

(a) A Soldier visualizes a distance of 100 m on the ground(b) For ranges up to 500 m, a Soldier determines the number of 100-m increments between the two objects to measure(c) Beyond 500 m, the Soldier selects a point halfway to the object(s) and determines the number of 100-m increments to the halfway point, then doubles it to find the range to the object

Front 28

How does a Soldier use the Flash-to-Bang Method? (5-29)

Back 28

(a) This method is used for determining range to an explosion or enemy fire—the count begins when the flash is seen(b) Count the seconds until weapon fire is heard(c) Interval may be measured with a stopwatch or by using a steady count, such as one-thousand-one, one-thousand-two, and so forth, for a three-second estimated count(d) If there is a count higher than 10 seconds, start over with one(e) Multiply the number of seconds by 330 m to get the approximate range

Front 29

Military personnel need a way of expressing direction that is accurate, adaptable to any part of the world, and has a common unit of measure—what are three (3) units of angular measurement used by military personnel? (6-1)

Back 29

(1) Degree—the most common unit of measure is the degree (º) with its subdivisions of minutes (') and seconds (")(2) Mil—mainly in artillery, tank, and mortar gunnery(a) The mil expresses the size of an angle formed when a circle is divided into 6400 angles, with the vertex of the angles at the center of the circle(b) A relationship can be established between degrees and mils. A circle equals 6400 mils divided by 360 degrees, or 17.78 mils per degree—to convert degrees to mils, multiply degrees by 17.78(c) Grad—a metric unit of measure found on some foreign maps. There are 400 grads in a circle (a 90-degree right angle equals 100 grads)

Front 30

To express direction as a unit of angular measure, there is a starting point or zero measure, and a point of reference; these two points designate the base, or reference line—what are the three (3) base lines used? (6-2)

Back 30

(1) True north(2) Magnetic north(3) Grid northNote: The most commonly used base lines are magnetic and grid

Front 31

What is True north, Magnetic north, and Grid north? (6-2)

Back 31

(a) True north is defined as a line from a point on the earth’s surface to the North Pole. All lines of longitude are true north lines. True north is usually represented by a star(b) Magnetic north is the direction to the north magnetic pole, as indicated by the north-seeking needle of a magnetic instrument. The magnetic north is usually symbolized by a line ending with half of an arrowhead. Magnetic readings are obtained with instruments such as the lensatic and M2 compasses(c) Grid north is established by using the vertical grid lines on the map. Grid north may be symbolized by the letters GN or the letter “y”

Front 32

What is an azimuth? (6-3)

Back 32

(a) A horizontal angle measured clockwise from a north base line (could be true north, magnetic north, or grid north)(b) The azimuth is the most common military method to express direction(c) When using an azimuth, the point where the azimuth originates is the center of an imaginary circle—this circle is divided into 360 degrees, or 6400 mils

Front 33

What is Back azimuth? (6-3)

Back 33

(a) This is the opposite direction of an azimuth—like doing an “about face”(b) To obtain a back azimuth from an azimuth, add 180 degrees if the azimuth is 180 degrees or less; subtract 180 degrees if the azimuth is 180 degrees or more(c) The back azimuth of 180 degrees may be stated as 0 degrees or 360 degrees(d) For mils, if the azimuth is less than 3200 mils, add 3200 mils; if the azimuth is more than 3200 mils, subtract 3200 mils

Front 34

Describe the military protractor, GTA 5-2-12? (6-6)

Back 34

(a) It contains two scales: one in degrees (inner scale) and one in mils (outer scale)—representing the azimuth circle(b) The degree scale is graduated from 0 to 360 degrees, with each tick mark representing one degree—a line from 0 to 180 degrees is called the base line of the protractor(c) The index (or center) of the protractor is where the base line intersects the horizontal line, between 90 and 270 degrees

Front 35

What is Declination when navigating? (6-10)

Back 35

The angular difference between two norths—having a map and a compass, the declination of most interest is between magnetic and grid northNote: Magnetic azimuths are generally used by Soldiers while navigating with a compass or dead reckoning (land navigation). The grid azimuth is generally used by planners and leaders when writing orders, controlling movement, or looking at graphic control measures

Front 36

What is Intersection when navigating? (6-17)

Back 36

The location of an unknown point by successively occupying at least two (preferably three) known positions on the ground, and then map sighting on the unknown location—it is used to locate distant or inaccessible points or objects such as enemy targets and danger areas

Front 37

There are two methods of Intersection—the map and compass method and the straightedge method—how is the Map and compass method performed? (6-7)

Back 37

(1) Orient the map using the compass(2) Locate and mark the position on the map(3) Determine the magnetic azimuth to the unknown position using the compass(4) Convert the magnetic azimuth to grid azimuth(5) Draw a line on the map from the position on this grid azimuth(6) Move to a second known point and repeat the steps 1 through 5 above(7) The location of the unknown position is where the lines cross on the map—determine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy

Front 38

There are two methods of Intersection—the Map and compass method and the Straightedge method—how is the Straightedge method performed? (6-7)

Back 38

(1) Orient the map on a flat surface by the terrain association method(2) From a known position (A), locate and mark the position on the map(3) Lay a straightedge on the map with one end at the user’s position (A) as a pivot point; then, rotate the straightedge until the unknown point is sighted along the edge(4) Draw a line along the straightedge(5) Repeat the steps at a second known position (B) and check for accuracyNote: The straightedge method is used when a compass is not available

Front 39

What is Resection when navigating? (6-18)

Back 39

It’s the method of locating one’s position on a map by determining the grid azimuth to at least two well-defined locations that can be pinpointed on the map—for greater accuracy, the desired method of resection is to use three or more well-defined locations

Front 40

What is Modified resection when navigating? (6-21)

Back 40

It is the method of locating one’s position on the map when the person is located on a linear feature on the ground, such as a road, canal, or stream

Front 41

What is Polar plot when navigating? (6-22)

Back 41

A method of locating or plotting an unknown position from a known point by giving a direction and a distance along that direction line—the following elements are present when using polar plot: (a) Present known location on the map; (b) Azimuth (grid or magnetic), and (c) Distance (in meters)

Front 42

Overlays.What are Overlays used for—their purpose? (7-1)

Back 42

(a) To display military operations with enemy and friendly troop dispositions and as supplements to orders sent to the field(b) To show detail that aid in understanding the orders, displays of communication networks, and other important information(c) Also used as annexes to reports made in the field because they can clarify matters that are difficult to explain clearly in writing

Front 43

What are the three (3) steps in making a map overlay? (7-2)

Back 43

(1st) Orienting the overlay material(2nd) Plotting and symbolizing the detail(3rd) Adding the required marginal information

Front 44

How does a Soldier orient the overlay material—the first step in making an overlay? (7-3)

Back 44

(a) Orient the overlay over the place on the map to be annotated(b) Then, if possible, attach it to the edges of the map with tape(c) Trace the grid intersections nearest the two opposite corners of the overlay using a straightedge, and label each with the proper grid coordinates—these register marks show exactly where the overlay fits on the map, for without them, the overlay is difficult to orient

Front 45

Navigation Equipment and Methods.Which compass is the most common and simplest instrument for measuring direction? (8-1)

Back 45

The lensatic compass

Front 46

Since compasses are delicate instruments and should be cared for accordingly, a detailed inspection is required when first obtaining and using a compass—what are some of the important checks to make during this inspection? (8-3)

Back 46

(1) One of the most important parts to check is the floating dial, which contains the magnetic needle(2) Make sure the sighting wire is straight(3) Check the glass and crystal parts are not broken(4) Check the numbers on the dial are readable

Front 47

Metal objects and electrical sources can affect the performance of a compass—what are the separation distances suggested to ensure proper functioning of a compass for (a) High-tension power lines; (b) Field gun, truck, or tank, and (c) Telegraph or telephone wires and barbed wire? (8-4)

Back 47

(a) High-tension power lines—55 m(b) Field gun, truck, or tank—18 m(c) Telegraph or telephone wires and barbed wire—10 m

Front 48

What are the two (2) techniques employed when using the lensatic compass? (8-7)

Back 48

(1) Centerhold technique(2) Compass-to-cheek technique

Front 49

What is a navigation method to bypass enemy positions or obstacles and still stay oriented? (8-13)

Back 49

Detour around the obstacle by moving at right angles for specified distances—for example, while moving on an azimuth of 90 degrees change the azimuth to 180 degrees and travel for 100 m. Change the azimuth to 90 degrees and travel for 150 m. Change the azimuth to 360 degrees and travel for 100 m. Then, change the azimuth to 90 degrees and return to the original azimuth line

Front 50

What is a Deliberate offset when navigating? (8-15)

Back 50

(a) It is a planned magnetic deviation to the right or left of an azimuth to an objective(b) Used when the objective is located along or in the vicinity of a linear feature such as a road or stream—because due to errors in compass or map reading, the linear feature may be reached without knowing whether the objective lies to the right or left(c) A deliberate offset by a known number of degrees in a known direction compensates for possible errors and ensures that upon reaching the linear feature, the user knows whether to go right or left to reach the objective(d) Ten degrees is an adequate offset for most tactical uses

Front 51

When a compass is not available, different techniques may be used to determine the four cardinal directions—what are three (3) field-expedient methods used to determine the four cardinal directions? (8-16)

Back 51

(1) The shadow-tip method(2) Watch method(3) Star method

Front 52

The shadow-tip method is a simple and accurate technique to find direction by the sun—what are its four basic steps? (8-17)

Back 52

Step 1. Place a stick or branch into the ground at a level spot where a distinctive shadow is cast. Mark the shadow tip with a stone, twig, or other means—this first shadow mark is always the west directionStep 2. Wait 10 to 15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a few inches—mark the new position of the shadow tip in the same way as the firstStep 3. Draw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an approximate east-west lineStep 4. Standing with the first mark (west) to your left, the other directions are simple; north is to the front, east is to the right, and south is to the rear

Front 53

The North Star is less than 1 degree off the true north and does not move from its place because the axis of the earth is pointed toward it—in which group of stars (constellation) is the North Star found and where in this constellation is it located? (8-24)

Back 53

The Little Dipper—it is the last star in the handle of the dipperNote: The two stars in the Big Dipper help when trying to find the North Star as wellNote: The North Star can only be seen in the northern hemisphere so it does not serve as a guide south of the equator (8-25)Note: The Southern Cross is the main constellation used as a guide south of the equator, and the general directions for using north and south stars are reversed (8-27)

Front 54

Elevation and Relief.What is Elevation and what is Relief? (ch.9, Intro)

Back 54

(a) Elevation of a point on the earth’s surface is the vertical distance it is above or below mean sea level (the point halfway between high tide and low tide)(b) Relief is the representation (as depicted by the mapmaker) of the shapes of hills, valleys, streams, or terrain features on the earth’s surface

Front 55

What is the most common method of showing relief and elevation on a standard topographic map? (9-8)

Back 55

Contour lines

Front 56

What is Slope on a map and how can it be determined? (9-15)

Back 56

(a) The rate of rise or fall of a terrain feature(b) Slope can be determined from the map by studying the contour lines—the closer the contour lines, the steeper the slope; the farther apart the contour lines, the gentler the slopeNote: There are four types of slopes that concern the military: gentle, steep, concave, and convex

Front 57

Why may Soldiers need to determine not only the height of a hill, but also the degree of the hill’s slope? (9-15 & 9-16)

Back 57

(a) The speed at which equipment or personnel can move is affected by the slope of the ground or terrain feature(b) Offensive and defensive advantages and disadvantages—the defender’s ability to use grazing fire and observation, and the attacking force’s abilities to negotiate the incline

Front 58

All terrain features are derived from a complex landmass known as a mountain or ridgeline—what is a Ridgeline? (9-25)

Back 58

A ridgeline is a line of high ground, usually with changes in elevation along its top and low ground on all sides, from which a total of 10 natural or man-made terrain features are classified (i.e., Major terrain features—hills, saddles, valleys, ridges, and depressions; Minor terrain features—draws, spurs, and cliffs; Supplementary terrain features that are man-made—cuts and fills)

Front 59

A valley is a stretched-out groove in the land, usually formed by streams or rivers—how is the direction of water flow determined in a valley? (9-29)

Back 59

To determine the direction water is flowing, look at the contour lines (either U-shaped or V-shaped)—the closed end of the contour line (U or V) always points upstream or toward high ground

Front 60

Major terrain features are hills, saddles, valleys, ridges, and depressions—what is a Ridge? (9-30)

Back 60

(a) It is a sloping line of high ground—the centerline of a ridge normally has low ground in three directions and high ground in one direction, with varying degrees of slope(b) Contour lines forming a ridge tend to be U-shaped or V-shaped—the closed end of the contour line points away from high ground

Front 61

Learning to identify several individual terrain features in the field and see how they vary in appearance takes practice—a recommended technique for identifying specific terrain features and then locating them on the map is to use five characteristics when identifying them—what are these five (5) characteristics? (9-40)

Back 61

(1) Shape—the general form or outline of the feature at its base(2) Orientation—the general trend or direction of a feature from the current viewpoint (a feature can be in line, across, or at an angle to the viewpoint)(3) Size—the length or width of a feature horizontally across its base (e.g., one terrain feature might be larger or smaller than another)(4) Elevation—the height of a terrain feature(5) Slope—the type (uniform, convex, or concave) and angle (steep or gentle) of the sides of a terrain featureNote: Terrain features can be examined, described, and compared with each other and with corresponding map contour patterns

Front 62

Terrain Association.The first step for a navigator in the field is orienting the map—when is a map oriented? (10-1)

Back 62

When it is in a horizontal position with its north and south corresponding to the north and south on the groundNote: When orienting a map with a compass, remember that the compass measures magnetic azimuths—since the magnetic arrow points to magnetic north, pay special attention to the declination diagram (10-2)

Front 63

How can a map be oriented when a compass is not available or when the user has to make many quick references while moving across country? (10-10)

Back 63

(1) By terrain association—using this method requires careful examination of the map and the ground, and knowing the approximate location(2) When a compass is not available and there are no recognizable terrain features, a map may be oriented by the field-expedient method

Front 64

What is the key to success in land navigation? (10-12)

Back 64

To know one’s location at all times—with this basic knowledge, direction and how far to travel is determinedNote: Most important is the initial location of the user before starting a movement in the field—if movement takes place without establishing the initial location, everything that is done in the field from there on is a gamble (10-13)

Front 65

Why is the technique of moving by terrain association more forgiving of mistakes and far less time consuming than dead reckoning? (10-16)

Back 65

(a) Errors made using terrain association are easily corrected by comparing what is expected from the map to what is seen on the ground(b) Errors are anticipated and do not go unchecked(c) Adjustments are easily made based upon what is encounteredNote: Terrain association best suits those situations that call for movement from one area to another

Front 66

One key to success in tactical missions is the ability to move undetected to the objective—what are the four (4) steps to land navigation during tactical movements? (10-25)

Back 66

(1) Know where you are(2) Plan the route(3) Stay on the route—this may include watching compass readings (dead reckoning) or recognizing various checkpoints or landmarks from the map in their anticipated positions and sequences as they are passed (terrain association)(4) Recognize the objective—the destination is rarely a highly recognizable feature such as a dominant hilltop or road junction. Such locations are seldom missed by the most inexperienced navigators and are often dangerous places for Soldiers to occupy

Front 67

How does a Soldier travel over unfamiliar terrain for moderate to great distances and know when he she reaches the destination—because one minor error, when many are possible, can cause the target to be missed? (10-30)

Back 67

(a) Select a checkpoint (reasonably close to the destination) that is not so difficult to find or recognize(b) Then plan a short, fine-tuned last leg from the new expanded objective to the final destinationFor example: Plan and execute the move as a series of sequenced movements from one checkpoint or landmark to another using the terrain and a compass to keep on the correct course. After arriving at the last checkpoint, follow a specific compass azimuth and pace off the relatively short, known distance to the final, pinpoint destination—this procedure is called point navigation

Front 68

Dead reckoning consists of two fundamental steps—what are they? (10-32)

Back 68

(1st step)—the use of a protractor and graphic scales to determine the direction and distance from one point to another on a map(2nd step)—the use of a compass and some means of measuring distance to apply this information on the ground—in short, it begins with the determination of a polar coordinate on a map and ends with the act of finding it on the groundNote: The farther dead reckoning is travelled without position confirmation in relation to the terrain and other features, the more errors accumulate in the movement (10-42)Note: Dead reckoning is time-consuming and demands constant attention to the compass—errors accumulate easily and quickly—every fold in the ground and detours as small as a single tree or boulder also complicate the measurement of distance (10-45)

Front 69

Which technique of moving is more forgiving of mistakes and far less time consuming than dead reckoning? (10-46)

Back 69

Terrain association—once an error has been made in dead reckoning, you are off the track, whereas, errors made using terrain association are easily corrected because comparisons between what is expected from the map can be seen on the ground

Front 70

What is known as the Catching feature when using handrails (linear features like roads or highways, railroads, power transmission lines, ridgelines, or streams that run roughly parallel to the direction of travel) during rough compassing? (10-49 and 10-50)

Back 70

When reaching the point where the route or the handrail changes direction, it is time to go your separate ways—some prominent feature located near this point is selected to provide this warning, thus this is the catching featureNote: It can also be used to tell if you have gone too far

Front 71

What is the major disadvantage to navigation by terrain association? (10-52)

Back 71

The map is interpreted and analyzed to the physical world—recognition of terrain and other features, the ability to determine and estimate direction and distance, and knowing how to do quick in-the-head position fixing are skills that are more difficult to teach, learn, and retain than those required for dead reckoning

Front 72

How is the most successful navigation obtained? (10-53)

Back 72

By combining techniques—constant orientation of the map and continuous observation of the terrain, in conjunction with compass-read azimuths and distance traveled on the ground, compared with map distanceNote: One should not depend entirely on compass navigation or map navigation; either or both could be lost or destroyed

Front 73

What is the basic technique used for nighttime land navigation? (10-55)

Back 73

Dead reckoning with several compasses

Front 74

Mounted Land Navigation.The principles of land navigation while mounted are basically the same as while dismounted—however, what is the major difference? (11-1)

Back 74

The speed of travel—walking between two points may take one hour, but riding the same distance may only take 15 minutes, so to be effective at mounted land navigation, travel speed is considered

Front 75

Nav in Different Types of Terrain.In dessert terrain, a sense of direction can be obtained by watching desert animals on their way to and from water holes (oases)—what is the drinking rule for pigeons or doves in desert areas? (12-3)

Back 75

As a rule, these birds never drink in the morning or during the day, making their evening flights the most important—when returning from the oases, their bodies are heavier from drinking and their flight is accompanied by a louder flapping of their wings

Front 76

While navigating in Jungle areas, very little terrain association can be accomplished because of the heavy foliage—what are some methods that are essential to navigation in this type of environment? (12-22 & 12-34)

Back 76

(a) Dead reckoning

(b) Terrain analysis

(c) Constant use of the compass

(d) An accurate pace count

Note: A lost navigator in the jungle can eventually find a way back to civilization by following a body of water with a downstream flow

Front 77

Swamps are common to all low, jungle areas where there is poor drainage—what is the usual technique used in swamp navigation? (12-30)

Back 77

Dead reckoning

Front 78

What is the most common error among jungle navigators? (12-35)

Back 78

To overestimate the distance traveledNote: Rates of movement and pace counts are particularly important to jungle navigators

Front 79

Navigation in urban areas can be confusing, but there are often many cues that present themselves while proceeding—what are three (3) strategies to stay on the route in an urban area? (12-49)

Back 79

(1) Process route descriptions—write down or memorize the route through an urban area as a step-by-step process (e.g., “Go three blocks north, turn left (west) on a wide divided boulevard until crossing over a river bridge. Turn right (north) along the west bank of the river, and…”)(2) Conceptual understanding of the urban area—while studying the map and operating in a built-up area, work hard to develop an understanding (mental map) of the entire area. This advantage allows navigation over multiple routes to any location. It also precludes getting lost whenever a turn is missed, or being forced off the planned route by obstacles or the tactical situation(3) Resection—whenever there is a vantage point to two or more known features portrayed on the map, do not hesitate to use estimated or plotted resection to pinpoint the current position. These opportunities are often plentiful in an urban setting

Front 80

What is the AN/PSN-11? (H-1)

Back 80

(a) The precision lightweight GPS receiver (PLGR) that is a highly accurate satellite signal navigation set(b) Designed for battlefield use anywhere in the world(c) It is sealed watertight for all-weather day or night operation(d) Operated as a stand-alone using prime battery power and an integral antenna—it can be used with an external power source and external antenna

Front 81

The defense advanced GPS receiver (DAGR)

Back 81

(a) The defense advanced GPS receiver (DAGR)(b) A handheld or host platform-mounted device that receives and decodes radio frequency signals from GPS satellite Link One (L1) and Link Two (L2)(c) It provides position, velocity (ground speed), and timing (PVT) reports, and navigation capabilities(d) Its primary function is to navigate through terrain using stored waypoint position information