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61 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Neuroglia
Support neuron actions, can't propagate action potential

6 Types: (1-4 CNS, 5-6 PNS)
1) Astrocytes
2) Oligodendrocytes
3) Microglia
4) Ependymal cells
5) Schwann cells
6) Satellite cells
Astrocyte
Provide blood-brain barrier in the CNS
Oligodendrocytes
Forms myelin sheaths on CNS axons
Microglia
Phagocytic neuroglia, removes debris in the CNS
Ependymal cells
Make cerebrospinal fluid in the CNS
Schwann cells
Forms myelin for Nodes of Ranvier in PNS nerves to increase conduction
Satellite cells
Structural support and regulation of material exchange in the PNS
Clusters
Ganglion (PNS cell body) + Nucleus (CNS cell body)
Bundles
Nerve (PNS axon) + Tract (CNS axon)
White Matter
Myelinated axons
Gray Matter
Neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, axon terminals, neuroglia
SNS vs. ANS
ANS: Sensory receptors from stomach/lungs to CNS
SNS: Sensory receptors from head, body wall, limbs, vision, hearing, taste, smell

ANS: Motor to skeletal muscle only, voluntary
SNS: Motor to smooth & cardiac muscle & glands, involuntary
Resting Membrane Potential
Due to the equal build-up of negative ions in cytosol and positively charged ions in ECF

Typical value = -70 mV

Why:
-K+ permeability 50-100x greater than Na+ at rest
-Anions can't leave cell because they're attached to non-diffusable molecules
Graded Potential
A small deviation from the membrane potential

Hyperpolarized = inside cell more negative
Depolarized = inside cell more positive

-Occurs w/ opening/closing of mechanical & ligand-gated channels in response to neurotransmitters/physical changes
-Amplitude varies due to stimulus strength
Postsynaptic Potential
Graded potential produced by a neurotransmitter binding to the postsynaptic neuron
Receptor (Generator) Potential
Graded Potential found in sensory receptors and neurons
Subthreshold Stimulus
Weak depolarization, doesn't reach membrane potential threshold, no action potential
All-or-None Principle
Action potential occurs completely or doesn't occur at all
Propagation
Mode of conduction in which the action potential maintains its strength as it travels along the membrane

Unidirectional: trigger zone --> axon terminal

Continuous (slow) vs. Saltatory (fast)
Factors affecting Propagation Speed
1) Amount of myelin
2) Axon diameter (greater SA, faster)
3) Temperature (higher, faster)
"A" Nerve Fiber
- Largest axon diameter
- Myelinated
- Brief absolute refractory period
- Axons of sensory neurons (touch, pressure, position of joints, some thermal/pain sensors, motor neurons)
"B" Nerve Fiber
- 2nd largest diameter
- Absolute refractory period > A fiber’s
- Axons of sensory impulses from the viscera → brain/spinal cord
- Axons of autonomic ganglia
"C" Nerve Fiber
- Smallest axon dimater
- Unmyelinated (slowest)
- Longest absolute refractory period
- Axons of sensory neurons for pain, tough, pressure, heat, and cold
EPSP
Excitatory postsynaptic potential


-Neurotransmitter causes depolarization, bringing the membrane closer to threshold
-Makes cell more excitable, but does not usually initiate an action potential on its own
IPSP
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

-Neurotransmitter causes hyperpolarization
-More difficult to produce an action potential b/c membrane potential is farther away (more negative) from the stimulus threshold
Ionotropic Receptors
The binding sites and ion channels are on the SAME protein
Metabotropic Receptors
Ion channels are on a different protein than the binding site

ex. G-protein: coupled to the receptor, directly opens/closes the ion channel or indirectly opens it via secondary messengers
3 Methods of Neurotransmitter Removal
1. Diffuses away from the synaptic cleft, out of reach of the receptor

2. Enzymatic degradation (eg. ACh-esterase breaks down ACh in the synaptic cleft)

3. Uptake into cells
Spatial Summation
Simultaneous PSP summation by stimuli from different locations on the membrane on the postsynaptic neuron
Temporal Summation
Summation of multiple PSPs by stimuli from the same location of postsynaptic membrane at different times (increased firing frequency)
Excitatory CNS Neurotransmitters
-ACh
-Glutamate
-Aspartate
Inhibitory CNS Neurotransmitters
-GABA
-Glycine
Differences between Action Potentials & Postsynaptic Potentials
1) Nature of signal (excitatory/inhibitory)
2) Propagation distance (graded = short)
3) Signal strength (maintaining it)
4) Signal amplitude (greatest @ formation site)
5) Refractory period (graded = none)
Properties of Blood
- Fluid connective tissue
- Total volume ~ 4-6L
- 55% Plasma, 45% formed elements
- Formed Elements: RBC, WBC, Platelets
- Plasma: 91.5% H2O, 8.5% proteins & solutes (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen, electrolytes, nutrients etc)
Hematocrit
Percentage of total blood volume occupied by red blood cells

Female Avg: 42% (38-46)
Male Avg: 47% (40-54)
Erythropoiesis
RBC formation; occurs in red bone marrow
-Stimulated by hypoxia, which stimulates EPO release from kidneys

*aka Hemopoiesis*
Leukocytes (WBCs)
Nucleated cells that combat infection & inflammation, no Hb

2 Types:
1) Granulocytes (Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils)
2) Agranulocytes (Lymphocytes, monocytes)

*Live for only a few hours to a few days

Neutrophils + Monocytes = phagocytosis
Eosinophils = combat histamine effects & parasitic worms
Basophils = inflammatory response in allergic rxns
Lymphocytes = destroy foreign invaders
Platelets (Thrombocytes)
Disc-shaped cell fragments w/o nucleis that help stop blood loss from damaged blood vessels by forming a platelet plug

Production stimulated by Thrombopoietin

Life span of 5-9 days
Hemostasis
The stoppage of bleeding, prevents hemorrhages

3 Mechanisms:
1) Vascular spasm (smooth muscle contracts)
2) Platelet plug formation (platelets clump around damage)
3) Coagulation
3 Phases of Blood Clotting
1) Formation of prothrombinase (activator)

2) Conversion of prothrombin to thrombin

3) Conversion of soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin

Extrinsic & intrinsic pathways initiate prothrombokinase formation
Blood Types
Antigen = Agglutinogens (on RBCs)
Antibodies = Agglutinins (in Plasma)

AB = universal recipient, no antibodies in plasma
O = universal donor, no antigens on RBCs

Rh System:
Have antigen = RH+
No antigen = Rh-
3 Different Capillaries
1) Continuous (diffuse gases; found in brain/lungs/smooth & skeletal muscle/connective tissue)

2) Fenustrated (pores for pinocytosis; found in kidneys/ SI/endocrine glands)

3) Sinusoid (large cell gaps for protein diffusion; found in liver/spleen/anterior pituitary/parathyroid gland)
Capillary Exchange
- Substances enter/leave capillaries by simple diffusion, vesicular transport, filtration, absorption

- H2O & dissolved substances movement dependent on HYDROSTATIC & OSMOTIC pressures
Net Filtration Pressure (NFP) [Starling's Law of the Capillaries]
*Filtration Pressures- (Net Filtration @ Arteriole end)*
BHP (Blood Hydrostatic Pressure) 35 mmHg
IFOP (Interstitial Fluid Osmotic Pressure) 1 mmHg

*Absorption Pressures- (Net Absorption @ Venule end)*
BCOP (Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure) 26 mmHg
IFHP (Interstitial Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure) 0 mmHg

NFP = (BHP + IFOP) - (BCOP + IFHP)
Cardiac Output (CO)
Amount of blood ejected per minute by either ventricle

CO (mL/min) = SV (mL/beat) x HR (bpm)
CO = MAP (Mean Arterial Pressure) / R (Total Resistance)
Benefits of Aerobic Exercise
- ↑ CO, contractility, SV
- ↓ rHR, BP
Control of Blood Pressure & Blood Flow
1) CV Center in MO reg. HR, contractility, vasomotor tone (input from baro&chemoreceptors, output along cardioaccelerator/vagus(X) nerves)

2) Hormones (Epi/Norepi, ADH, angiotensin II) reg. BP & flow

3) Autoregulation from local adjustments to flow to match needs of tissue
Heart Rate
Normal Resting = 70-80 bpm

Tachycardia = > 100 bpm

Bradycardia = < 60 bpm
Systemic Blood Circulation
L. Atrium --(bicuspid valve)--> L. Ventricle --(aortic valve)--> Aorta --> Arterioles --> Capillaries --> Venules --> Veins --> Inferior/Superior Vena Cava/Coronary Sinus --> R. Atrium
Pulmonary Blood Circulation
R. Atrium --(tricuspid valve)--> R. Ventricle --(pulmonary valve)--> Pulmonary artery --> Arteries of lungs --> capillaries of lungs --> pulmonary veins --> L. Atrium
Cardiac Cycle
1) Atrial Depolarization (P-Wave)
2) Atrial Systole (Contract) [PQ Interval]
3) Ventricular Depolarization (QRS Complex)
4) Ventricular Systole (Contract) [ST Segment]
5) Ventricular Repolarization (T-Wave)
6) Ventricular Diastole (Relax)

Takes ~0.8 sec
ST segment can indicate risk of heart attack
Cardiac Conduction System (Pacemaker Potential)
1) SA Node
2) Atrioventricular (AV) Node
3) AV bundle (Bundle of His)
4) R/L bundle branches
5) Purkinje fibers
Factors Affecting Stroke Volume
To Increase SV:
↑ Preload (EDV) - More venous return back to heart
↑ Contractility - ↑ temp, more catech., glucagon, thyroid hormones
↓ Afterload (ESV) - vasoconstriction in periphery
Frank-Starling Law
Greater Preload (EDV) will increase force of contraction (SV)

w/ Training, increase in sympathetic tone = greater direct relationship bet. EDV & SV
Heart Rate Reserve (HRR)
HRR = HRmax - RHR

Heart's ability to increase CO independent of SV during exercise
*Indication of CV fitness level
3 Processes of Respiration
1) Pulmonary Ventilation (Breathing)
- Inspiration/Inhalation (Active)
- Expiration/Exhalation (Passive)

2) External (Pulmonary) Respiration
- Exchange bet. alveoli & pulmonary capillaries (CO2 --> O2 blood)

3) Internal (Tissue) Respiration
- Exchange bet. systemic capillaries & tissue cells (O2 --> CO2 blood)
Factors Influencing Rate of Airflow
1) Alternating pressure differences
2) Alveolar surface tension
3) Lung compliance
4) Airway resistance
Control of Respiration
Respiratory Center:
- Rhythmicity Area (MO) --> sets rhythm of respiration
- Pneumotaxic & Apneustic Areas (Pons) --> coordinates transition bet. inhale/exhale

Central (Pons) & peripheral (Aorta + carotid arch) Chemoreceptors increase ventilation when pCO2 levels rise above 40mmHg
*CO2 drives respiration to greater extent than pO2)
Oxygen Uptake (VO2)
VO2 = CO x avO2-diff

avO2-diff -- a measure of how much O2 is extracted by the tissues

Product gives the rate at which O2 is consumed by body tissues

*At rest: VO2 (ml/kg/min) = 3.5
*Maximal (relative) = 40.5
Factors Influencing VO2max
1) Cardiac Output - stronger heart, more O2 it can deliver

2) Oxygen delivery

3) Rate of ventilation/expiration (Lung diffusion)

4) Blood O2 carrying capacity

5) Muscle metabolism
Bone Composition
25% Water
25% Organic Matrix
- Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts
50% Inorganic Matrix
- Ca Phosphate* and Ca Carbonate*
- Fluoride
- Sodium
- Potassium