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219 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
General Principle of Practice?
o The more the practice conditions and the test conditions have in common, the better test performance will be
Constant Practice
a practice sequence in which people rehearse only one variation of a given class of tasks during a session
Varied practice
a practice sequence in which performers rehearse a number of variations of a class of given tasks during a session.
Structuring the Learning Experience
• Which tasks or task aspects should be varied during practice and how variation is optimal?
• How should we sequence practice at various tasks to maximize learning?
• How much rest is needed during practice to maximize learning?
Practice Variability
• Refers to the variety of movement and context characteristics the learner experiences while practicing a skill.
Practice Variatability is important for?
Dynamic systems theory
Schema Theory (GMP)
Gentile's learning stage model
Dynamic systems theory
“because we need to solve the degrees of freedom and we can only get this if we grasp the different variations”
Schema theory (GMP)
“need to know what is invariant”
Gentile’s learning stages model—
which conditions affect movement, also adapt to ones which don’t affect movement ex: “smoking”
• Variability of practice experiences is important for ?
learning motor skills
Movement and context features (characteristics) that can be varied in practice
Skill variations
Physical context
Situations
Skill variations will be required in?
“test” condition (drive in US can use automatic, plan to go elsewhere need to know how to drive manual, know how to throw over and under hand)
Physical context
the skill is performed (in Louisiana no problem going up hills, live in Colorado need to go uphill in car, playing tennis hard or soft court)
Situations
Situations in which the skill occurs (totally different in catching ball in backyard or catching for touchdown in last minute of college football game—stress vs. no stress)
Practice variability is better for
learning and performance on future “test” situations
Constant vs. variable practice
One variation of a skill vs. several variations of a skill (bowling vs. volleyball hiting options)
Research has shown that more variability is?
is better than less variability- even when there is a retention test involved
Performance errors are?
beneficial for learning
 Increased amount of practice variability is associated with an increased amount of performance error during practice
kicking a field goal in football- (Physical, Skill variation, situation)
• -physical context examples: bumps, night, weather
• -skill variation examples: using different foot to kick
• -situation examples: overtime, large crowd
studying for an exam-(Physical, Skill variation, situation)
physical context: study in room you are taking it, paper vs. computer
• -skill variation: recall or recognition
• -situation: where you are studying, need an A on the test to keep a C, cramming before a test
-learning to drive a car-(Physical, Skill variation, situation)
physical context: rain, night, day
• -skill variation: automatic vs. manual, compact car vs. 18 wheeler
• -situation: traffic, driving while talking on phone
• What are the characteristics of the physical context and skill features of the performance
• Different skills require different features to be varied
o Practice conditions—open vs. closed skills
 Closed skills—intertrial variability (use driver than 7 iron, throw with tennis ball then with soft ball)
 Open skills—skill variability (teach basketball need to teach all skills needed-dribble, shoot)
Washing dishes
closed, vary different dishes
Spiking volleyball
open, set up from left and from right, or change the playing surface from sand to court.
Folding clothes
closed, vary different types of clothes
Turning pages in a book
closed, vary size of book or starting from different spots of book
Hitting a pitched softball
open, fast vs. slow ball, with or without a curve
Shooting at a stationary target
closed, outside or inside, with or without natural light
Performing a cartwheel
closed, on grass or in a gym
closed skill change
non regulatory conditions
open skill change
regulatory conditions
o Block practice
—same skill over and over again
o Random practice
various of skill and randomized cannot predict what the next title is
o Serial practice
—after second time of doing series you recognize its serial, first time around it just looks random
• Contextual interference
o The memory and performance disruption that results from performing variations of a skill within the context of practice
• Contextual interference Various amounts of contextual interference can occur during practice depending on the ?
scheduling of the practice variability

a high amount of contextual interference
• Contextual Interference
o Interference in performance and learning that is the result of
practicing one task in the context of other tasks
• Contextual Interference Effect
o A phenomenon in which more interference during practice leads to better learning than less interference
Contextual Interference and Practice Schedules
• There is a continuum of the amount of interference created by practicing a variety of skills within the context of practice
Contextual Interference and Practice Schedules
o Blocked order
—low contextual interference (BBB AAA CCC)

****blocked practice performance better in practice worse on retention test,
Contextual Interference and Practice Schedules
o Serial order
—moderate contextual interference (CABCABCAB)
Contextual Interference and Practice Schedules
o Random order
—high contextual interference (CACBBACBA)

*** do better during retention tests
• Low CI practice schedules perform better during practice
than high CI schedules
• High CI practice schedules perform better on tests than
low CI schedules
There is a learning paradox for contextual interference and practice schedules
o The group that did well during practice does not do well on the test
o The group that did not perform the bet during practice performed best on the test
Research evidence for contextual interference effect
• Laboratory experiments—first showed this effect for motor skills
• Non-laboratory experiments—has been shown for:
o Beginners/novices
o Skilled performers/experts
Amount of Contextual Interference
• Random practice
o Learners are pretty accurate in estimating their learning—good metacognition
Amount of Contextual Interference
• Blocked practice
o Learners overestimate their learning—lower metacognition
possible reason for blocked practice
performance during practice misleads them to judge they have learned more than they actually have (do good in practice and worse in the actually games)
Contextual Interference and Practice Schedules
o Blocked order
—low contextual interference (BBB AAA CCC)

****blocked practice performance better in practice worse on retention test,
Contextual Interference and Practice Schedules
o Serial order
—moderate contextual interference (CABCABCAB)
Contextual Interference and Practice Schedules
o Random order
—high contextual interference (CACBBACBA)

*** do better during retention tests
• Low CI practice schedules perform better during practice
than high CI schedules
• High CI practice schedules perform better on tests than
low CI schedules
There is a learning paradox for contextual interference and practice schedules
o The group that did well during practice does not do well on the test
o The group that did not perform the bet during practice performed best on the test
Research evidence for contextual interference effect
• Laboratory experiments—first showed this effect for motor skills
• Non-laboratory experiments—has been shown for:
o Beginners/novices
o Skilled performers/experts
Amount of Contextual Interference
• Random practice
o Learners are pretty accurate in estimating their learning—good metacognition
Amount of Contextual Interference
• Blocked practice
o Learners overestimate their learning—lower metacognition
possible reason for blocked practice
performance during practice misleads them to judge they have learned more than they actually have (do good in practice and worse in the actually games)
• CI is another example why you should be very reluctant to use
practice performance as a predictor of learned behaviors
• Remember practice performance may
may not give a clear indication of what has been learned
• It is important to use effective assessment to
measure learning
Practice Variability
• Research has shown much support for the contextual interference effect but also shows that?
that it does not apply to all motor skill learning situations
o Characteristics related to the limits of the effect:
Learner characteristics
Motor skill characteristics
 Possible reasons for different findings in lab
If motor skill is complex it requires more practice than studied
If motor skill is complex learning might require low to high amounts of contextual interference
• There are two hypotheses for the occurrence of the Contextual Interference Effect:
o Elaboration hypothesis
—effect is related to the elaboration of the memory representation of the skill variations that learner is practicing (more attention resources put in the better you learn it)
• There are two hypotheses for the occurrence of the Contextual Interference Effect:
o Action plan reconstruction hypothesis
—high amounts of contextual interference requires the learner to reconstruct an action plan on subsequent practice trials for each skill variation
• Two important characteristics related to contextual interference
o Higher levels of contextual interference involves
greater attention demands during practice (keep people engaged in what they are doing, don’t get bored)
• Two important characteristics related to contextual interference
o Practice according to a blocked schedule tend to result in an
overestimation of how well one has learned during practice
• Three characteristics of the practice and test conditions that is applicable to practice specificity
o Sensory/perceptual characteristics
Availability of visual information
• Three characteristics of the practice and test conditions that is applicable to practice specificity
o Performance context characteristics
Incidental and intentional remembering (home field advantage)
• Three characteristics of the practice and test conditions that is applicable to practice specificity
o Cognitive processing characteristics
Need to be similar, coaches make plays and have opponents in practice situations
• Offering a practice schedule that starts with low CI and
gradually increases to higher levels of CI as the learner becomes skilled may be the most appropriate
• High levels of CI may
not be appropriate for novices or children
• The benefits of high CI are
not beneficial until the learner has a basic idea of how to achieve the action goal
• Allows development of movement pattern
• Decreases contextual dependency
Contextual Interference
Structuring the Learning Experience
• The amount of practice and the spacing or distribution of that practice can affect both practice performance and learning of motor skills
o The amount of practice is critical
o Time is limited- Time and cost restrictions
Structuring the Learning Experience
Overlearning
• Continuation of practice beyond the amount needed to achieve a certain performance criterion
o Extra practice
Strengthens the generalized motor program
Increases the stability of coordination and control characteristics
Positive influence on retention of performance for motor learning skills
o Procedural skills
A skill involving a series of discrete responses each of which must be performed at the appropriate time in the appropriate sequence
Includes a combination of cognitive and motor components
Overlearning is an effective strategy to increase retention (no matter when the extra training is given)
o Dynamic balance skills
Overlearning results in better retention
A point of diminishing returns (power law of performance curve)
o physical education class setting
one study showed that student determined extra practice was more efficient than teacher determined extra practice
Overlearning
• it sometimes leads to learning deficits
o simple skills
boredom
no active engagement of attention resulting in decreases in performance
decreased capability to transfer
need for practice variability
• amount of practice cannot be taken in isolation to determine
optimal practice
o other variables are also very important
Distribution of Practice
• Is the spacing of practice
• The practice distribution problem”
o There is a specific amount of time to practice for future test/goal
• The practice distribution problem”
o What is the best way to schedule the available time in terms of:
The length and frequency of practice sessions
The length of rest intervals between trials during each practice session
• Two types of distribution schedules of practice
Mass practice
Distributed practice
o Mass practice
Sessions are relatively long
Relatively few sessions
No (or minimal) between-trial rest intervals
o Distributed practice
Sessions are relatively short
Relatively many sessions
Relatively long between-trial rest intervals
• Research has shown _____ of distributed practice sessions for all kinds of motor skills?
benefits
o Frequent and shorter practice sessions
o Fatigue hypothesis
—fatigue influences negatively learning
o Cognitive effort hypothesis
—boredom -> attention decreased
o Memory consolidation hypothesis
—memory consolidation needs processing time
• What is the optimal length of the intertrial interval?
o Massedno (or minimal) rest
o Distributedrelatively long rest
A lot of research has been devoted to this question
(Two problems leading to disagreement)
Practice performance vs. learning effects
Different effects on different types of skills
• Practice distribution schedule that is best for learning depends on
the type of the skill
o Continuous motor skills
Distributed schedules more effective than massed
o Discrete motor skills
Massed schedules more effective than distributed
Remember: fatigue, boredom/attention, memory consolidation
Implications for scheduling practice sessions
• Practice sessions can be too long
• Schedule more rather than fewer sessions, if the available amount of time for practice permits
• Time saved in terms of number of days of practice can be a false savings
• The length and frequency of sessions desired by participants may not represent the best schedule
• Keep rest intervals short between trials for skills that require short performance time (simple discrete motor skills)
• Whole practice
—a practice strategy that involves practicing a skill in its entirety
o Practice touchdown, practice two people with a throw
• Part practice
—a practice strategy that involves practicing parts of skill before practicing the whole skill
o First practice the step forward then the throw, toss up before tennis serve then practice hitting the ball
Skill Complexity and Organization
The decision to practice in part of whole can be based on how complex the motor skill is
o Complexity is distinct from
difficulty in the context of motor skills
Complexity
number of parts or components of a task, the attention demands on a task
Difficulty
Fitts’ law (accuracy and distance to target)--**review Fitts’ law**
o Organization is related to complexity
Spatial relationships among the parts of the motor skill
Temporal relationship among the parts of the motor skill
o High level of organization
Parts are spatially and temporally interdependent (depend on each other, related to each other)
Throwing
o Low level of organization
Parts are relatively independent (doesn’t matter when you do one thing and when you do the other thing)
Doesn’t matter what order you unload dishwasher
• Complexity-> number of component parts of a skill
o (one lowmany high)
• organization-> relationship between parts of a skill
o (independent lowinterdependent high)—one component cannot be part of this scale
• analyze the skill to determine which part of each_____?
continuum for complexity and organization best represents the skill
o skill low in complexity and high in organization
(throwing)
practice of the whole skill is best
o skill high in complexity and low in organization
(take shower, unload dishwasher)
practice using the part method is best
o skill low in complexity and low in organization
(pointing at two different objects in sequence)
practice using the part method skill is best
o skill high in complexity and high in organization
(jump shot)
practice using the whole skill is best
Benefits of whole practice strategy
o Provides opportunity to perform all the spatial-temporal coordination requirements of the skill
Benefits of part practice strategy
o Provides opportunity to focus attention to a specific component or feature of the skill (focus on different parts in a tennis serve)
o High level of complexity
o High level of organization (walking)
• Continuous skills
o High level of complexity (cleaning a gun)
o Varied level of organization (pick up ball and then throw)
• Serial skills
o Low level of complexity (pointing, look only at throw)
o High level of organization (when activate shoulder and elbow depends on where you point)
• Discrete skills
• Positive transfer of learning one part to learning other parts of the skill
Part Practice
o Three part-task strategy
Fractionization
two limbs or more, practice each limb involved in the motor skill separately
Fractionization are skills requiring ?
asymmetric coordination of the arms and legs (tennis serve, guitar playing)
o Three part-task strategy
Segmentation
—practice of segments of the motor skill separately, could lead to difficulty to put parts together
Solution progressive part method
Practice procedure for segmentation
• Practice first component part of skill
• Practice second part
• Practice two parts combined
• Repeat these steps until all parts of the skill are combined
-takes advantage of benefits of both part and whole practice strategies
-good thing—restrict attention demands
o Three part-task strategy
Simplification
—reduced skill difficulty by practicing an easier variation of the skill before practicing the skill itself, simplifies either the whole skill or parts of the skill
What are the Simplification variations?
Reducing object difficulty (juggle with ball fast, juggle with scarf slower—larger hand writing)
Reducing attention demands (relearn to walk, put in straps so they don’t have to put resources into balancing and not falling over)
Reducing speed (dance, show slowly the moves-martial arts, boxing combinations)
Adding (auditory) cues (Parkinson’s have trouble with gate, give auditory tones and they can walk with less variation and make better steps)
Sequencing skill progressions (hitting baseball—tee ball, under arm throw, over arm throw)
Simulation (manipulate anything to make it easier and safer-military, exams)
If it is not practical use part practice
-focus on different aspects during practice (highly skilled athletes)—“momentary intention” attention allocation strategy (if you do this the cost is implicit learning is getting diminished because focusing so much on a single thing)
• Mental practice can be effective for ?
learning and relearning motor skills and for preparing to perform motor skills (don’t physically do anything)
Definition of mental practice
• The cognitive rehearsal of a physical skill in the absence of overt physical movements
Mental practice involves?
o It can take the form of thinking about the cognitive or procedural aspects of a motor skill, or
o Engaging in visual or kinesthetic imagery of the performance of a skill or part of a skill
o Imagery can be internal or external (spectator)
o Mental practice is distinct from “meditation”don’t contemplate or free mind like in meditation
The Use of Imagery- Internal
visual image of performing the task inside his/her body, first person (see and feel finish line)
The Use of Imagery- External
visual image of watching yourself perform the task as if a spectator, third person (looking at own body)
Roles of Mental Practice
• Research has investigated two distinct roles for mental practice
o A practice strategy to aid the acquisition of motor skills
o A means of preparing to perform a well-learned skill (think of what you will be doing soon, prepare for high jump and picture yourself going over the bar)
Mental Practice and Skill Acquisition
• To determine the influence of ?
mental practice on skill learning
researchers have typically compared three practice strategies:
o Physical practice only (PP)
o Mental practice only (MP)
o No practice (NP)
• What do the results consistently show for mental practice?
o PP>MP>NP
• What do results show if a group is added that receives a combination of equal trials of physical and mental practice?
o Similar to PP only, difficult to research because we don’t really know what people are thinking
Learning Situations- Rehabilitative setting
(even though can’t physically move, start mental stimulation)
Learning Situations- Power training
(easily fatigue, mental practice between practice trials, benefits from training the whole time)
o Part of a general preparation strategy that aids learning
Five steps:
Get ready physically and mentally
Mentally imaging performing action
Concentrating intensely on one relevant cue related to action
Execute the action (doing something)
Evaluate outcome (doing something)
All of this helps, but if you can add physical it makes it better
o Between competitive events
o Immediately prior to and during a competitive event
o Rehabilitating an injury
• Imagery is the most common mental practice strategy for skilled athletes preparing to perform a skill
• Five types of imagery that athletes use to improve performance:
o Motivational—specific (when gold metal)
o Motivational—general mastery (boxers, be confident, relax self to keep anxiety levels low)
o Motivational—general arousal (lower arousal level to make sure it doesn’t affect anything, general mastery helps reduce this also, avoid stress)
o Cognitive—specific (bicycle kick, throw at 85 mph)
o Cognitive—general (think about strategy, give options)
Mental Practice Effectivity
• There is no comprehensive theory that explains why mental practice in the form of imagery is effective
• Three generally accepted hypotheses for mental practice Effectivity:
o Neuromuscular hypothesis
o Brain activity hypothesis
o Cognitive hypothesis
o Neuromuscular hypothesis
—EMG recordings in muscles showing involvement
o Brain activity hypothesis
—brain activity during imagery similar to activity during physical performance of a skill
o Cognitive hypothesis
helps learner answer “what to do” questions that are common during the initial stage of motor skill learning (cognitive stage)
Imagery Ability and Mental Practice
• Some people have great difficulty to image a described action
• Research indicates that the effectiveness of imagery based on people’s ability to visually or kinesthetically image physical movement (internal can feel things cannot do so as spectator)
• Ability to image is an individual difference variable
• Hall and colleagues developed an imagery ability questionnaire to assess the ability of a person’s imagery ability
• Research shows that people with low imagery ability can still benefit from mental practice
Areas of Research
• Motor learning
o Changes—improve functions
Areas of Research
• Motor control
o Functionality—what is hardware for movement
Areas of Research
• Motor development
o Age related changes/functionality (motor control or learning with age spin on it)
o Gross motor
large muscles (hit ball, kick, walk)
o Fine motor
small muscles (hand writing, talking, face)
o Discrete MS
definite beginning and end
o Continuous MS
no defined beginning and end (walk, bike, swim)
o Serial MS
in between, combination of discrete motor skills in order (specific order—procedural skill)
o Closed MS
at moment initiate movement all information is available, nothing changes
o Open MS
environment changes, not in control
(holding something)
o Body orientation, object manipulation
regulatory condition, intertribal variability
(one trial to next something changes)
• Foreperiod
warning signal then go signal, the time in between
• Reaction time
when heard or seen go signal until movement start moving
• Movement time
—start of movement until termination of movement
• Premotor time
—EMG no activation, processing information
• Motor time
measurable activation in EMG, cannot see movement
• Absolute error
how close are you getting to target, how far away are you, magnitude
• Constant error
under or over shooting, bias, positive or negative
• Variable error
low variable error you are consistent or already have motor program available or coordinative structure, high variable error person still needs to fine tune motor program and it’s a new skill
• Root-Mean-Square error
profile, walking on line
• Kinematics
velocity, acceleration, don’t take into account forces
—cause of motion by force, momentum
• Kinetics
activation of muscle or motor unit
• EMG
• Brain activity measures
fMRI, EKG, what part of brain is involved in the movement
• Degrees of Freedom
the number of independent elements or components in a control system and the number of ways each component works
- control
o Open loop control
—don’t use feedback, all information available before you start, do whole movement, not enough time to process feedback
o Closed loop feedback
—feedback, do something during or after action, USED FOR OPEN MOTOR SKILLS
Fitts Law
• Manual aiming skills
discrete skill
Fitts Law
• Speed-accuracy trade-off
do something fast less accurate, more accurate slow down
Fitts Law
• Index of difficulty
accuracy constraint
Fitts Law
• Complexity
about movement segments in task, move movement components more complex, more attention demands more complex
Hick’s Law
• Action preparation
reaction time
Hick’s Law
• Time
how much it takes
Hick’s Law
• Index of difficulty
more choices more action preparation time slower reaction time
Stimulus-Response Compatibility
• Action preparation
The activity that occurs between the intention to perform and initiation of that action
Sometimes motor programming is used to refer to to this preparation activity
Stimulus-Response Compatibility
• Anticipation
think something is coming you will be faster because you can prepare and shorten reaction time
Stimulus-Response Compatibility
• Predictability
more predictable, faster
Stimulus-Response Compatibility
• Cost-benefit trade-off
something you didn’t predict you will be slower because you predicted something else
Attention
• Central resource capacity theories
Attention
• Multiple resource theories
resources dedicated to certain tasks, why we can walk and talk at same time
Attention
• Arousal
—central resource theory
Attention
• Automaticity
don’t need any resources to perform a task, get better at something, becomes second nature, naturally
• Working memory
short term memory, 30s if you don’t rehearse or code it it goes away, limited in elements 7+/-2
• Long term memory
unlimited, permanent
• Procedural memory
difficult to verbalize (how to do things), procedural skills not in procedural memory
• Semantic memory
recognize chair without thinking about it
• Episodic memory
individual, memories from past, store memories how you see them
• Forgetting/retrieval
short term memory gone after 30 seconds, long term forgetting because of retrieval don’t have the cue but it is still stored in there
• Performance
• Learning
Motor Learning
Four General Trends Seen in Performance Curves
• Linear
proportional increases over trials or time, not often
Four General Trends Seen in Performance Curves
• Negatively accelerated
early improvement but slows during later practice, power law of learning, learning new skill
Four General Trends Seen in Performance Curves
slight improvement early but substantial improvement during later practice, not often, find it and you know you stopped measuring when someone was still learning, negative transfer because of improvement at beginning
Four General Trends Seen in Performance Curves
• Ogive or S-shaped
Rehabilitation setting, negative transfer at beginning, combination of all three curves
Assessing Learning
• Retention test
—nothing changes between practice and test itself
Assessing Learning
• Transfer test
change something, measure variation, adaptability
• Fitts and Posner three stage model
o Cognitive stage
what, how, why, when to do something, verbal
• Fitts and Posner three stage model
o Associative stage
get relevant cue for motor program, strengthen motor program, monitor errors
• Fitts and Posner three stage model
o Autonomous stage
expert, some people never get here
• Gentile’s two stage model
o Initial stage
o Later stages
• Practice specificity hypothesis
more similar practice condition to test condition the better you will do, better on retention test, during practice use vision you need it during test because part of motor program or coordinative structure
• Encoding specificity principle
a memory principle that indicates the close relationship btwn encoding and retrevial memory process.

the more similarity the better the performance test
• Near/intratask transfer
in between, golf and baseball swing, negative transfer at first
• Bilateral transfer
practice right hand and left hand gets better, asymmetric, more benefits train dominant hand first
• Demonstration
(modeling/observational learning)—exception is rhythm and speed
• Verbal instruction
useful, easy to overload, give to much information at once
• Intrinsic feedback
you see everything that is happening
• Augmented feedback
o Knowledge of results
o Knowledge of performance
feedback comes from asource external to the person preforming the skill.
Sometimes refered to as extrensic or external feedback