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237 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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___ coined the term "biodiversity" and said that we have only discovered ___ percent of species
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E. O. Wilson, 10
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___ is a plant that grows on other structures
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An epiphyte
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____ is the study of human evaluation and use of plants in pre-modern societies
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Ethnobotany
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Vascular tissue is composed of ___, which transports ___, and ___, which transports ___
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xylem, water; phloem, sap
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Xylem transports water through ____ and ____
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vessels, tracheids
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Phloem transports nutrients through ___ and ____
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sieve tube cells, companion cells
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____ fibers provide structural support for plants
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Schlerenchyma
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___ is a plant that is only fertilized by one type of moth
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Darwin's orchid
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____ is a single-seeded dry fruit
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An achene
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____ are the plants shown in class that have strong hallucinogens that can cause death
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Angel trumpets
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Land plants first evolved ____ years ago
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400 million
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The most abundant protein on Earth is ____, which ____
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Rubisco, fixes carbon in the Calvin Cycle
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The most abundant membranes on earth are ____
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Thylakoid membranes
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Unique features of plants:
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1. Cell walls,
2. Chloroplasts, 3. Large vacuoles, 4. Plasmodesmata, 5. Polyploidy, 6. Self-fertilization possible but not preferred |
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____ are inserted into ____ of the bacterium ___, and transformation is done on shoot or leaf tissue that forms a ____ when grown on agar medium
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Transgenes, plasmids, Agrobacterium, callus
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Antibiotics like ___ and ___ are used to select for bacterium that have taken up the plasmid.
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kanamycin, gentamycin
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Transgenic plants are easy to make because ___ and ___.
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infection with Agrobacterium is efficient, and plant calluses are totipotent
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Tobacco plants can be made to glow with genes for ___ from fireflies
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luciferase
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Modified rice can be made to have more ____, and tomatoes can grow in ___
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beta-carotene, salty soil
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____ are chemicals that are not for cellular metabolism; they attract pollinators and repel predators
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Secondary metabolites
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Secondary metabolites are stored in the ____ because ___
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vacuoles, they could also harm the plant's enzymes
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Some examples of secondary metabolites are ____ (4)
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morphine, caffeine, cocaine, and nicotine
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____ is produced by willow trees, where it ____ and ___
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Salicylic acid, defends against viruses, signals unexposed areas of a plant that there is an infection
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Aspirin is an ___ form of ____
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acetylated, salicylic acid
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Ethylene has the formula ____, is a ___ at room temperature, and functions in _____, where production triggers ___
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C2H4, gas; abscission, fruit ripening, more production
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Commercial shippers of fruits add ___ to hasten ripening and ____ to slow it
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ethylene, scrubbers
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The Triple Response is ___, ____, and ____
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slowing of stem elongation, thickening of the stem, horizontal motion
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___ mutants fail to undergo the Triple response under ethylene, and ___ mutants always undergo it
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ein, ctr
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____ regulate plant movement; the most important is ____
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Auxins, IAA
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___ is when a plant moves in response to light
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Phototropism
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Charles Darwin and his son found that when the top ___ of a plant was removed, ___
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coleoptile, the plant does not respond to light
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Plants will bend if ____ is placed between the tip and the growing region, but not if ___ is
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gelatin, mica
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When light strikes the ____, the auxin moves to the ___ side, causing growth to ____
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coleoptile, shaded side, increase
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If a shoot is tipped over, heavy organelles called ___ sink and use ____ signaling to cause ___ transport to the bottom
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statolith, Ca++, auxin
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Auxin promotes growth by stretching the ___ of cell walls, which are made of ____
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microfibrils, 250 cellulose molecules
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Auxin causes the release of ___ and ____, which are activated by ____ and modify ___
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H+, expansins, protons, hydrogen bonding between polysaccharides on the cell wall
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The photoreceptor for phototropism is ___, which absorbs ____ and initiates release of ____
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phototropin, blue light, auxin
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___ is the manner in which plants grow in response to touch
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Thigmotropism
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Experiments with ___ showed that plants probably have cycles of activity called ___
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Mimosa, circadian rhythm
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Insect-eating plants mostly do so because they need ___
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nitrogen
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Galvani performed experiments on ___ and called the movements the result of ___
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frogs, animal electricity
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A network of neurons is called a ___, and clusters are called ___, but in vertebrates they are organized into a ___
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neural network, ganglia, central nervous system
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Nerve cells in the cerebellum and retina have ___, while spinal cord nerve cells have ___
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many dendrites, a long axon
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Sensory neurons are usually ___ to all other neurons.
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presynaptic
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___ nerve cells are arranged like triangles
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pyrimidal
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___ are responsible for insulation of the central nervous system
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oligodendrocytes
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___ are nerve cells that have ___ and prevent certain chemicals from traveling into the head, which is called the ___
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astrocytes, gap junctions, blood-brain barrier
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____ produce myelin in the central nervous system, while ____ produce it in the peripheral
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oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells
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The cytosol has higher concentrations of ___, while the extracellular space has more ___
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K+, A-; Na+, Cl-
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The ____, which measures the electrical gradient, can be calculated by the ___
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equilibrium potential, Nernst equation
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Resting potential is close to ___ and is more determined by the membrane potential for ___
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-60 mV, K+
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Pumps transport ____ Na+ ions out for every ___ K+ ions in
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3, 2
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Action potentials last for about ___
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1-2 ms
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Axons with larger nerves conduct action potentials more ___
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quickly
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Invertebrates have ____ axons, while vertebrates use ___, which reduce ___
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unmyelinated, Schwann cells, ion leakage
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In nerve cells, ion channels are clustered at the ___, which jump to the next by ____
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Nodes of Ranvier, saltatory conduction
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Saltatory conduction is fast because ___ and ____, up to a speed of ___
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there is less leakage, less time is needed for ion channels to open and close, 120 m/s
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_____ is correlated with the loss of synapses
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Alzheimer's disease
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The ___ is the part of the nerve cell that connects to the axon
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axon hillock
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The average neuron connects to ____ synapses, and there are ____ neurons in your body
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1000, 10^11
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Electrical synapses are mediated by ___, so they ____ (3)
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gap junctions, can't be easily modulated, can't summat temporally, can't inhibit
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Chemical synapses are ____ that diffuse along the ____
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neurotransmitters, synaptic cleft
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An action potential arriving at the end of the neuromuscular junction results in opening of ____ and fusion of the ____, releasing ___
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voltage gated Ca++ channels, synaptic vesicles, ACh
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Ach opens ____ on the postsynaptic membrane, causing ____, until Ach is finally degraded by ___
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Na+ channels, depolarization, acetylcholinesterase
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Depolarizing neurotransmitters are ____, bringing about a ___, while hyperpolarizing ones are ___
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excitatory, Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP), inhibitory
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The axon _____ has many ____, while the ____ has few
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hillock, voltage-gated ion channels, axon
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Multiple synapses causing an action potential is called ____
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spatial summation
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A single synapse firing multiple times is called ____
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temporal summation
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____ receptors bind a neurotransmitter and _____, while ____ are G-protein coupled receptors
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Ionotropic, cause a direct change in ion movement, metabotropic
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_____ in heart cells respond to the neurotransmitter ___ , activating ___, which phosphorylates a ____, while cAMP activates a ____, causing ___
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Cardiac adrenergic receptor, norepinephrine, PKA, Ca++ channel, Na+ channel, increased contraction of the heart muscle
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Synaptic signals can be stopped by ___ (4)
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released in short bursts, degraded in the cleft, diffused out, taken up by transporters or glial cells
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A change in membrane potential of a sensory cell is called a ___
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receptor potential
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___ are sensitive to touch, with ____ causing the opening of ion channels
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mechanoreceptors, physical distortion
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In touch, ____ adapt slowly and provide continuous information, ____ adapt quickly and are very sensitive, _____ adapt slowly and sense low frequency vibrations, and ____ adapt quickly and sense high frequency ones
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Merkel's discs, Meissner's corpuscles, Ruffini corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles
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Hair cells are a special ____ that are found in the ____
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mechanoreceptor, cochlea
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____ are a family of pigments comprised of ___ attached to _____
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rhodopsins, a retinal, opsin
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Light causes the ____ in rhodopsin to change from ____ to _____, causing ____
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retinal, 11-cis, all-trans, conformation change in opsin
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Compound eyes are composed of many ____, which direct light into the ____
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ommatidia, retinula cells
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Insect vision probably looks like ____
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impressionism
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The inner segment of rod cells have ____, while the outer have ___
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the nucleus and many mitochondria, a stack of discs with rhodopsin
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In the dark, rod cells are ___ because ____
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depolarized, Na+ channels are open
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When ____ absorbs light, it activates ____, which activates ___, which converts ____ to ___
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rhodopsin, a G protein called transducin, a phosphodiesterase, cGMP, GMP
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____ keeps ____ in the rod cells open, but in light, that concentration drops, so they close, causing ____
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cGMP, Na+ channels, hyperpolarization
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In humans, light hits the ____, which synapses into the ___, and then the ____, and then the ____
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photoreceptors, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, optic never,
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In the dark, photoreceptor cells release ____ onto the ___, but in light, they ____
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glutamate, bipolar cells, stop releasing it
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___ bipolar cells are ____ by glutamate, and ____ in the light
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Ionotropic, depolarized, hyperpolarize
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____ bipolar cells have ____ that open, causing the cell to ____, but when it ____, an action potential is fired
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metabotropic, Ca++ channels, hypolarize, depolarizes
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Light causes photoreceptors to ____, while bipolar and ganglion cells ____
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hyperpolarize, depolarize
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The blind spot is caused by ___
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lack of photoreceptors where the optic nerve goes back
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The most sensitive area of the eye is called the _____, which has only ____
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fovea, cone cells
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____ is normal sight, ___ is nearsightedness, and ____ is farsightedness
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emmetropia, myopia, hyperopia
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myopia is when the focus point is ____ of the retina, while hyperopia is ____
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in front, back
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Rod cells ____, while cone cells _____
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are sensitive to black/white, provide color vision
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Humans have 3 cone cells, which see _____
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violet and blue, green, yellow and red
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In squids and octopi, the ____ are closer to the center of the eye
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photoreceptors
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____ is the idea that one's head shape can tell one's personality
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phrenology
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The ____ of the brain control things like breathing and circulation
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medulla and pons
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The _____ of the brain coordinates muscle movement
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cerebellum
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The ____ of the brain comprises the hypothalamus and thalalums
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diencephalon
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The ___, or cerebrum, is responsible for most conscious thought
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telencephalon
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The _____ are involved in recognition, and lesions may cause ___
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temporal lobes, being unable to identify stimuli
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The _____ of the brain projects to muscles
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motor cortex
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The ____ of the brain receives touch and pressure
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somatosensory cortex
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____ is when cortex assigned to a part of the body is reassigned
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neural plasticity
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When repeating a word, brain activity goes from ____ to ____ to _____
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the auditory or visual cortex, Wernicke's area, Broca's area
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____ is inability to produce or comprehend language
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aphasia
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People with damage to the ____ of the brain, Broca's area ____
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front left, cannot create complex sentences and only speak in content words
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People with damage to the ____ of the brain, Wernicke's area ____
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back left, speak grammatically but meaninglessly
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The ____ connects the two halves of the brain, and cutting it can be a treatment for ____
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corpus callosum, epilepsy
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Learning involves repeated firing of a synapse, causing ____
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more neurotransmitters vesicles to be released
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Learning changes at synapses can be through ____ or _____
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proteins modulating neutotransmitter release, receptors changing sensitivity
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Continued usage of a ____ synapse activates ____ receptors that trigger ____, which unblocks ____ receptors, which allow influx of ____ ions
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glutamatergic, AMPA, depolarization, NMDA, Ca++ and Na+
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Phosphorylation of ____ and ____ receptors are involved in _____
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AMPA, NMDA, long-term potentiation (LTP)
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Short term memory is accessed in the ____, which also forms long-term memory, which is stored in the ____ of the ____
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hippocampus, temporal lobes, cerebral cortex
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Evidence that memories were stored in certain areas of the brain came from studies on people with ____, who reported memories when the ____ was stimulated
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epilepsy, temporal lobes
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Immediate memory lasts ____, while short term-memory lasts ____
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a few seconds, 10 to 15 minutes
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_____ is a poison in pufferfish that ___
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Tetrodotoxin, inhibits voltage-gated Na+ channels
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___ is a disease when immune cells attack myelin sheaths
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multiple sclerosis
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Parkinson's disease is caused by degeneration of ____-containing neurons in the ____
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dopamine, substantia nigra
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____ is a precursor to dopamine that can help treat Parkinson's
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L-dopa
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One class of antidepressants are called ____, which ___
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Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), increase time serotonin stays in the synaptic cleft
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Schizophrenia is related to the neurotransmitter ____, which the illegal drug ____ stimulates as well
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dopamine, amphetamine
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Cocaine inhibits ___ and ____ transporters
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dopamine, norepinephrine
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LSD is ____ of ____
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an agonist, serotonin
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Smooth muscles are not striated because ____ and _____ are not arranged regularly
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actin, myosin
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___ hold bones at a joint, and ____ hold muscles to bones
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ligaments, tendons
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Each single muscle cell is called a ____, and they are packed with bundles of ___
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muscle fibers, myofibrils
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The sarcomere is bounded by ____, which anchor the ____ filaments
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Z lines, actin
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At the center of the sarcomere is the ____, which houses the ____ filaments
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A band, myosin
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The ___ contains proteins that support the myosin filaments
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M band
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The _____ is in the center of the sarcomere, and the ___ is at the end, where myosin and actin do not overlap in a relaxed muslce
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H zone, I band
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Myosin filaments are held by ____
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titin
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The major theory of muscle contraction is called the _____
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"sliding filament" theory
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Actin filaments are made of ___
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two chains of actin molecule twisted together
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Myosin filaments are made of ____, which are made of ___
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many myosin molecules, two polypeptide chains
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Troponin has three sites: ____
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actin, tropomyosin, Ca++
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Myosin heads use ____ to attach to the actin
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ATP hydrolysis
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When muscles are at rest, myosin heads are blocked from attaching to the actin by ____ and ___, which can bind _____ change configuration to open the sites
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tropomyosin, troponin, Ca++
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Muscle cells are depolarized by ____, opening ____
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action potentials from neurons, sodium channels
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Action potentials in muscles travel through the ____ to the ___
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T-tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum
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At high summation levels in muscles, pumps can no longer remove ____ quickly enough, resulting in _____
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Ca++, tetanus
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Slow-twitch (____) muscles have a high _____, so they are good for ____
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Type I red muscle, amount of mitochondria and myoglobin, endurance
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Fast-twitch (____) muscles have a high _____, so they are good for ____
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Type IIb white muscle, ATPase activity, quick actions
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Fast-oxidative (_____) muscles have a high ____, so they are good for ____
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Type IIa red muscle, amount of mitochondria and myoglobin, medium endurance
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Strength exercises increase ____
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the number of actin and myosin filaments
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Aerobic exercises increase _____, while converting ____ muscles to _____
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capillary density, IIb, IIa
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Poisoned arrows often used _____, which blocks _____, causing death by ____
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curare, Ach receptors, inability to move the diaphragm
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Botulism blocks ____, and toxin A in particular affects ____
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Ach release, SNAP-25
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____ study the behavior of animals in their natural environments
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ethologists
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A ____ is an instinctive behavior in response to a ____
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fixed action pattern, releaser
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In herring gull chicks, ___ and ____ release begging responses, while ____ and ___ have no effect
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red dots, bill shapes, head shape, head color
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____ showed that ducklings could ____ on their new mothers during the ____
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Konrad Lorenz, imprint, critical period
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If a food source is less than 80m from the hive, the bee dances ____
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in a circle
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If a food source is more than 80m from the hive, the bee dances ____
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at an angle in relation to the sun
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When ____ were transplanted to Switzerland, their ______ navigation failed
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starling juveniles, distance-and-direction
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The circulatory system moves ___ to cells and transports ____ away
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O2, glucose, amino acids, nutrients; CO2, urea, waste
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Some simple aquatic organisms do not have circulatory systems because they can ___
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diffuse
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____ and ___ have an open circulatory system, which ___
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Arthropods, mollusks, mixes blood and tissue fluid together
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Insects have separated their ____ and ____ systems, the latter running through ____
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circulatory, gas exchange, tracheae
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Closed circulatory systems are found in _____ and _____
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annelids, vertebrates
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Advantages of closed circulatory system: ____ (3)
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blood flow is faster, flow can be regulated to specific tissues, large molecules can be kept inside the vessels
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Mammalian blood consists of ____ (4)
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plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets
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____ is a measure of the cellular portions of our blood, which is around ____
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hematocrit, 40%
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Blood tastes salty because of ____
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Na+ and Cl-
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Bone marrow makes ____ red blood cells per second, which produce hemoglobin until they are at ___ concentration, at which point they enter circulation
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2 million, 30%
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Red blood cells live ___ and are broken down by the ____
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30 days, spleen
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____ break apart into platelets
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megakaryocytes
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Damage to blood vessels exposes _____, which activate platelets that release _____, which convert ____ to ___, which causes polymerization of ____ to _____
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collagen fibers, prothrombin, thrombin, fibrinogen, fibrin
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In distal tissues, only ___ percent of capillaries have blood flowing through
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5-10
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The hormone ____ causes constriction of blood vessels, and ____ causes dilation
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endothelin, nitrous oxide
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Capillary walls are a layer of ____ with fine holes called ____
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epithelial cells, fenestrations,
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___ pushes solutes out of the capillaries, while ___ and ____ draw them in
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blood pressure, large proteins, bicarbonate
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Bicarbonate is made from ___ and ____ in the blood
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H2O, CO2
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A breakdown in structural proteins of the largest artery can result in ____, which can also affect the ____
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aortic aneurysms, iliac artery
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Varicose veins are caused by ___
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vein valves stretching
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Lungfish evolved lungs from a modified ____, which has divided ____
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gut, atria
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Separate circuits are good because ____ (3)
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oxygenated and deoxygenated blood don't mix, lungs only receive oxygenated blood, circuits can move at different pressures
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The left ventricle pumps to the ____, while the right one goes to the _____
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systemic circuit, pulmonary circuit
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The ___ and ___ valves prevent backflow into the ventricles
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pulmonary, aortic
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The ___ valves prevent backflow into the atria
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atrioventricular
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Contraction of the ventricles is called ___, while relaxation is ____, after which the atria contract
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systole, diastole
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Blood pressure can be measured by a _____, with normal being about ____
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sphygmomanometer, 120/80
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The pacemaker is called the ___, which is located near the ____ and the _____
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sinoatrial node, superior vena cava, right atrium
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Ventricles do/do not contract in unison with atria because ____
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do not, there are no gap junctions in between
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The ____ is stimulated by depolarization of the atria, causing it to generate action potentials spread by the ____
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atrioventricular node, Bundle of His
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The Bundle of His splits into masses called ____
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Purkinje fibers
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In the ventricles, the first phase is opening of ____, while the second is ____, which stay open for ___
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voltage-gated Na+ channels, Ca++ channels, 300 ms
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Heart disease can be caused by ____, and a blood clot (____) can block it, possibly causing a ____
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artherosclerosis, thrombis, myocardial infarction
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If the thrombus breaks away and lodges in the brain, a ____ can result in ____
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embolism, stroke
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Good cholesterol is ____, while bad cholesterol is _____
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high-density lipoproteins, low-density lipoproteins
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There are about 30 _____ in vertebrates, whose main functions are ___ (3)
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antimicrobial complement proteins, attach to microbes for recognition, activate inflammation, lyse invading cells
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____ engulf and digest foreign materials, and they include ____, which attack pathogens in infected tissues, and ____, which mature into ____
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phagocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages
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Cells release ____ when damaged to cause inflammation
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histamine
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Macrophages vs. Neutrophils:
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macrophages live longer and consume more pathogens
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Macrophages that engulf invaders release ___, which signal fevers
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cytokines
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___ in the immune system are secreted by ____ and bind specifically to certain substances
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antibodies, B cells
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___ in the immune system are cell surface receptors that bind non-self receptors on the surface of other cells
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T cell receptors
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____ proteins on the outside of cells distinguish self from non-self
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Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
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_____ are proteins in the immune system released by _____ that bind and alter the behavior of their target cells
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cytokines, T cells
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The lymph system is outside the circulatory system and contains no __
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Red blood cells
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_____ are sites along lymph vessels where ____
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lymph nodes, phagocytes remove microbes
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There are two types of lymphocytes, ____, which migrate to the ____, and _____, which make _____
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T cells, thymus, B cells, antibodies
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____ are molecules recognized by antibodies based on their specific sites (___)
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antigens, epitopes
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The ___ immune response detects antigens in the blood, while ____ detects those inside cells
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humoral, cellular
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When a B cell binds an antigen, it divides into _____ and ____
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plasma cells, memory cells
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_____ antigens reduce toxicity of the organism in vaccines, and we can produce ____ that activate antibodies, but are not harmful
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attenuated, antigenic fragments
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Passive immunity comes from ___(3)
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placenta, mother's milk, anti-toxins
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Plasma cells have lots of ____ and ____ for secreting antibodies
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rough endoplasmic reticulum, heterochromatin
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Antibodies have 2 ___ and 2 ____
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light chains, heavy chains
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There are ___ different classes of antibodies, and the most common is ____
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5, IgG
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IgG antibodies are ____, so they have two binding sites
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bivalent
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The ___ portion of the heavy chains of antibodies tells ____ that anything coated in them should be eliminated
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Fc, macrophages
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T cell receptors are different from antibodies because ___
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antibodies will also bind free-floating antigens, while T cell receptors will only bind ones on cells
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There are two types of T cells, ____, which kill infected cells by secreting ____, and _____, which causes other immune cells to divide
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cytotoxic T cells, perforin, helper T cells
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MHC gene products in humans are called ____
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human leukocyte antigens
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____ are present on the surface of every nucleated vertebrate cell and tell the immune system that those are body cells
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Class I MHC proteins
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____ are found on antigen-presenting cells like ___ and _____
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Class II MHC proteins, immune cells, nerve cells,
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There are ___ different loci for MHC I and MHC II, with ___ different alleles
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6, 100
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___ cells recognize antigen fragments from MHC and divide in response, destroying it in the ____ phase
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T cells, effector
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Different antibodies are created by ___ of _____
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reshuffling, B cells
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HIV infects ____-producing T cells, which is a surface protein that binds ____
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CD4, MHC II
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Grave's disease is caused by immune response to the ____
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TSH
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Multiple sclerosis is caused by immune response to the ____
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myelin sheaths
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Type I diabetes is caused by immune response to the ____
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beta cells
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Arthritis is caused by immune response to the ____
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joints
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An allergen stimulates release of the ____ class of antibodies
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IgE
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The primary treatment for ___ is administration of ___, which acts on ___ receptors in the lung
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anaphylaxis, epinephrine, beta
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The sensitivity to temperature is called ____, which is the ____ divided by the ____, with normal being about _____
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Q10, rate, rate at temperature ten degrees lower, 2-3
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____ depend on external heat sources, and cold-blooded animals are called ____
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ectotherms, poikilotherms
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Vasoconstriction in arterioles is controlled by ____ and vasodilation is controlled by ___
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endothelin, NO
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The narrow range of temperatures where endotherm metabolism is low is called the ____
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thermoneutral zone
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Nonshivering heat production comes in the form of ____, which have a protein called ____ that causes ____
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brown fat, thermogenin, proton movement in mitochondria to make heat instead of ATP
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Insects overwinter through _____, while bears do/do not
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diapause, do not
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Endotherm strategies for staying warm: ___ (3)
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round shapes, insulation, constricting blood flow
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Endotherm strategies for staying cool: ___ (4)
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reduction of fur, longer appendages, seeking contact with water, sweating
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____ cause a resetting of the set-point in the ____
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pyrogens, hypothalamus
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Hibernation often has brief periods of _____, about once every ____
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arousal, few days
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