Jewish Studies Terms

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1. Tanakh:

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The Jewish Bible; Is an acronym for the hebrew names of 3 divisions: Torah (“Law”; the 5 books of Moses), Nevi’im (prophets) and Ketuvim (writings)

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2. Torah:

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“Law” or “Instruction”; It is divided into 5 books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy

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3. Prophets:

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Comprises of 2 sections: former and latter prophets- each which have 4 books. A collection of 12 minor prophets follows


*former prophets:Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings
*later prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and 12 minor prophets

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1. Writings:

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Begins with 3 long, difficult, poetic books( Psalms, Proverbs, and Jobs). 5 smaller books follow (Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther) and the section concludes with 3 books(Daniel, Ezra, Chronicles). This is the order of books found in the Tanakh

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2. Massoretic Text:

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The authoritative Hebrew text in the Jewish Bible; also describes each vocalization of each precise hebrew letter. Used as a basis translation of the Old Testament of the Protestant Bibles

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3. Documentary Hypothesis:

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The pentateuch (torah) is divided into 4 different basic documents, each which can be roughly dated to represent different stages in Israel’s religious history; written by G-d (the 5th book deuteronomy was written by Moses)

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4. Monotheism:

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The belief in the existence of one God; Basic for Jewish Religion( one of the 10 commandments)

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5. Abraham:

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First of 3 patriarchs; Told by God to leave his father’s house to go to The Promise Land promising to make God’s children into a great nation. God told Abraham to tell the people about His covenant

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6. Covenant

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A binding agreement between God and His people

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1. What is the Bible? Are all Bibles the same? How might a Jewish and Christian Bible differ?

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a. “The Book”; It’s an analogy, a collection of collections of collector produced over a time period of more than a thousand years reflecting divergent beliefs and aspirations of many different social and religious groups. Not all bibles are the same- the Christian Bible contains the prophets because they believe the prophets all lead up to the prediction of the Messiah, Jesus. This section serves as an appropriate introduction to Gospels, the narrative life of Jesus.Authority when it comes to rabbinic judaism, seen as from god, gives jews a sense of identity; includes disciples of jesus (john, mark, paul, peter, etc)

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2. What are three different genres included within the Bible?

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. 1) Narrative Text (past events), 2) Prophit Text ( tell the future), 3) Prophecies ( make up the bulk of the later prophets)- some Bibles cast the present. This literature is found in Jobs, and Proverbs and is often called Wisdom Literature
i. 4) rules and instruction: ex building temple (24 cubits); sacrifices (does and dont’s); 5)poetry: song of songs;

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3. What are three main historical periods that are covered in the Bible?

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. Divided based on the relation of Judah and Israel to external powers. 1) Pre-monarchic- before ca 1000) 2)Monarchy period (ca. 1000-586) and 3) the exilic period (586-538). Some further subdivide the monarchy period into the United Monarchy and the Divided Monarchy.

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4. Is there archaeological or other historical evidence related to the events in the Bible? If so, what? If not, why not?

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. The Bible cannot be used as a straightforward historical source because many texts were written down centuries after the events being described. Stories may often contain historical kernel because in ancient times they were told for entertainment, not history, but it is often hard to tell how much kernel is added. They are often myopic as well because males wrote them and back in royal times they didn’t care much about the woman.

. Dead Sea scrolls; the finding of noah’s ark in Turkey

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5. What is source criticism? Explain at least two sources.

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. The attempt to establish the sources used by the writers of the stories in the Bible of the final text. (1)Orthodox (traditionally)-God to moses to people (2)Academic research-hypothesis that the Torah comprises of many different sources that were floating around in different places at different times in history seen as divine revelation
. hypothesis that says that the Bible especially the torah is a compilation of different sources that were floating around in ancient times. Suggest that the bible/torah is linked together (edited and redacted into a single text). Seeks to identify different sections as belonging or coming from different sources

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6. Why is the Bible important for the Jewish people? Give at least two specific examples.

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. History book of the world- authority,religion, beliefs, people, culture. Fascinating in the stories and poetry.
. •History book (narrates origins of the world, creation)
i. •Religious book (law and practice)
ii. •Fascinating one: poem, gripping stories; genealogy
iii. •Authority when it comes to rabbinic Judaism
iv. •Divine from G-d

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7. What was the canonization process (when did the Tanach become authoratative)? When did it occur? What were its results?

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a. The process which the Bible took on its final form, but few ancient texts describe the details. The Torah became authoritative by the 6-5 century BCE, Prophets by the 2-1 BCE and the Writings by the 1 century. Revolts against the Romans played a significant role in the belief that a closed, clearly defined biblical canon was necessary.

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8. Why were the Masoretes important in the history of the Bible?

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. Other than the Dead Sea Scrolls, it’s the only existing representation of the Old Testament in Hebrew.
i. The masoretes added all types of notes to the Bible to make sure people were pronouncing things correctly

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1. Ten Commandments:

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a. The Ten Commandments, also known as the Decalogue, are a set of biblical principles relating to ethics and worship, which play a fundamental role in Judaism as well as Christianity. They include instructions to worship only god and to keep the Sabbath, and prohibitions against idolatry, blasphemy, murder, theft, dishonesty, and adultery. Different groups follow slightly different traditions for interpreting and numbering them.
b. the traditional Rabbinical Jewish belief is that the observance of these commandments and the other mitzvot are required solely of the Jewish people, and that the laws incumbent on humanity in general are outlined in the seven Noahide laws In the era of the Sanhedrin transgressing any one of six of the Ten Commandments theoretically carried the death penalty, the exceptions being the First Commandment, honoring your father and mother, saying God's name in vain, and coveting, though this was rarely enforced due to a large number of stringent evidentiary requirements imposed by the oral law.

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2. Israelite Religion:

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Covenant with G-d
Key to religion
Will never abandon Jews but will punish
Obedience
Sacrifices
Does not continue into rabbinic period
Temple
Does not continue into rabbinic period


. Ancient Israelite Religion refers to the religious beliefs and practices of ancient Israel before the advent of Judaism in the 1st century CE.
a. a nation of people that came from the descendants of Jacob, which formed the 12 tribes of Israel.

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3. Sacrifice:

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. The centrality of sacrifices in Ancient Israel is clear, with much of the Bible, particularly the opening chapters of the book Leviticus, detailing the exact method of bringing sacrifices. Sacrifices were either blood sacrifices (animals) or bloodless offerings (grain and wine). Blood sacrifices were divided into the burnt offerings (in which the whole animal was burnt, guilt offerings (in which part was burnt and part left for the priest) and peace offerings (in which similarly only part of the animal was burnt and the rest eaten in ritually pure conditions). The prophets point out that prayer and sacrifices are only a part of serving God and need to be accompanied by inner morality and goodness.

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4. God’s Justice:

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a. Judaism has always maintained that G-d's justice is tempered by mercy, the two qualities perfectly balanced. Of the two names of god most commonly used in scripture, one refers to his quality of justice and the other to his quality of mercy. The two names were used together in the story of Creation, showing that the world was created with both justice and mercy.

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1. Tabernacle

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: The portable tent that acted as the dwelling place of God from the time of the Exodus till the building of the Temple of Solomon

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2. Temple

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House dedicated to God, located in Jerusalem, housing the Ark of the Covenant. A central place for the Jews to worship and offer sacrifices.

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3. Josephus

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Born to priestly Jewish Family, became involved in the Jewish Revolt against Rome, he then switched sides to the Romans. Author of “The Jewish War” which is one of the only records telling of the fall of Masada, the fall of Jerusalem, and loss of the second temple.

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4. Diaspora

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The dispersion of Jews living outside of the Land of Israel. After the destruction of the first Temple, not all Judeans returned from exile in Babylonia

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5. Masada

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Masada (from the Greek name) - a mountain fortress overlooking the shores of the Dead Sea where Jewish insurgents held out for three years against the Romans after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. and then took their own lives. Metzada has remained a symbol of Jewish heroism.

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1. What did Solomon build? For what purpose? Why is it described in such detail?

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Solomon built the first Temple for the Lord, as well as to fulfill a promise to David that ‘one of his own would build the Temple where he(God) could live and dwell forever.’ There is holiness in the details of the Bible, the Temple was described in detail in day-to-day of the Temple, the exact measurements and materials, to the Value in craftsmanship to explain the splendor, exactness, honor, as well as give a clear image of the Temple and what was within it.

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2. Who destroyed the First Temple? Why? According to what sections of the Bible?

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King Nebuchadnezzer, of the Babylonians destroyed the First Temple according to II Kings 24-25. Jeremiah a prophet said it was going to get destroyed but no believe they had a sense of false safety from Egypt.

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3. How does Lamentations 1-2 compare with II Kings 24-25? Give at least two examples

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Lamentations is a lament/cry of the Jews as well as the Anger of the Lord led to Israel’s destruction. It is poetic, full of emotion
11 Kings is more historical, very straightforward about the events leading up to the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians, the exile of the Jews to Babylon, and the destruction and plunder of the Temple. It is emotionless.

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4. Who decides to build to Second Temple? How does the description of its building and dedication in Ezra 6 compare with the building and dedication of the First Temple in I Kings?

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King Cyrus of Persia decreed that the Exiles should return home and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. It was further supported and approved by King Darius. In comparison to the building and dedication of the First Temple in I Kings to Ezra 6, Ezra 6 has little to no detail about the Temple being built, “The Temple was finally finished […] The Temple of God was dedicated with great joy by the people of Israel, the priests and the levites….100 young bulls, 200 rams, and 400 male lambs were sacrificed.” In I Kings the Temple is described in full detail from what its was made of, how it was made, very exact in every measurement. The dedication was led by King Solomon, then they offered 22,000 cattle and 120,000 sheep to the Lord with a 14 day celebration. The building and dedication of the Second Temple was much less grand then the First Temple.

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5. What did Roman general Titus conquer? In what manner? How did the Jews respond?

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Titus conquered and destroyed Jerusalem and it’s temple. He did not mean to burn or destroy the Temple, but his men went against his wishes. “The Jews made a great clamour, such as so mighty an affliction required, and ran together to prevent it. And now they spared not their lives any longer, nor husbanded their force, since that holy house was perishing….” The Jews were very distressed.

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6. What was Masada? Why did the Romans want to conquer it, and why was that difficult?

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Masada was a desert fortress built by Herod. It lies in the Middle of the Judean desert. Zealots were the last defenders and hid their family’s there from the Roman Empire. Ended in the mass suicide of 960 Jews.

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7. Does Josephus seem to be more sympathetic to the Jews or the Romans?

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Josephus seems to be more sympathetic to the Romans. He blames the War on the “underepresentative and over-zealous fanatics” among the Jews. He thought the Jews served a defeated God. He was a traitor

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8. What is seen as the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora? Give two reasons why Diaspora is significant to Jewish religion and/or history.

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After the Babylonians conquered the Kingdom of Judah, part of the Jewish population was deported into slavery in 586 B.C. marks the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora.
Reasons why the Diaspora is significant to Jewish religion and/or history is it show the importance of maintaining a national identity, after the destruction of the first Temple, not all Judeans returned from exile in Babylon, there was a loss of political independence, there was attraction of other religions, and later there was a shift in the center of religious authority from temple priest to the Rabbis.

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1. Rabbi

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Rabbi literally means “my teacher.” The rabbis were teachers of the Torah. They are significant because they created Rabbinic Judaism, which is the precursor to modern day Judaism.

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2. Oral Torah:

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The Oral Torah is the body of laws, teachings, and commentary that constitutes rabbinic literature and is considered the authoritative interpretation of the Written Torah; It is believed to have been given to Moses orally and passed down from generation to generation until the rabbis recorded it. The Oral Torah teaches Jews how to live their lives according to the will of God and explains how they are Jewish.

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3. Written Torah:

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The Written Torah refers to the Hebrew Scriptures that were considered to be divinely revealed to Moses. The Written Torah is considered to be authoritative. It is important because it contains Jewish law, custom, and belief; it instructs Jews on how to live a holy life.

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4. Midrash

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Midrash is a rule driven form of interpretation, or genre, that emerges from some basic rabbinic assumptions about the nature of the biblical text. It was often used to clarify a biblical mandate or make certain commandments inapplicable. It is important because it clarifies scriptural issues and shares commentary on the nature of God.
For example, the Midrash made stoning virtually inapplicable. Many people struggled with the concept that God would kill children. They believed that God wouldn’t do such a thing, so the rabbis re-interpret various words in the text (since they believed that words contained hidden meaning) until the commandment was inapplicable.

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5. Mishnah

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The Mishnah is a book of rules written to guide Jewish life according to the will of God; A body of Jewish law codified in the third century CE in the Land of Israel by Judah ha-Nasi (the Patriarch). The Mishnah and gemara (rabbinic expansions, analysis, and rulings) constitute the body of law and teaching known as the Talmud.

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1. Who were the Rabbis? When and where did they live?

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a. The rabbis are teachers of the Torah. They emerged in 70 CE after the Jewish diaspora and burning of the second temple by the Romans. They lived in Galilee. “Their goal was to define the Torah as an authoritative source for the living will of God” (p.119). Unlike the priests, where you had to be male and born into a priest line, anyone could achieve the position of rabbi. In early times, however, men constituted the majority of rabbis. In order to become a rabbi one must engage in Torah study. There were two groups of Rabbis: the early rabbis (Tannaim) 70-250 CE and the later rabbis (Amoraim) 250-500 CE.

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2. Why did religious authority shift from the priests to the Rabbis? When?

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. The religious authority shifted from priests to the rabbis after the second temple was destroyed in Jerusalem. Israelite religion emphasized ritual and sacrifices so they needed a priest. Since ritual and temple sacrifice were no longer possible because the temple was destroyed, a new means of performing Judaism had to be created. Under the leadership of the Rabbis prayer and Torah study replaced sacrifices.

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3. What are three differences between Israelite religion and Rabbinic Judaism? What are some of the reasons for these differences?

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. Several differences between Israelite religion and Rabbinic Judaism include their takes on sacrifices, who has authority, and how a person gains authority:
i. Sacrifices
1. Israelite religion emphasizes sacrifices – Rabbinic Judaism discontinued sacrifices and chose to emphasize prayer and Torah study
2. The second temple’s destruction left no place for rituals and sacrifices to be offered. The Jews’ decision to transition came from the fact that they no longer had a temple. It also came from the influence of surrounding cultures (other cultures studied written word.)
ii. Who has Authority
1. In the Israelite religion authority resided with the priests who performed rituals – In Rabbinic Judaism authority came from the written text (Torah) & Rabbis (teachers of the Torah)
2. This change had to do with the influence of surrounding cultures.
3. “The conceptual world inhabited by the Rabbis was not some essentially or intrinsically "Jewish" one, but one uniquely shaped at the intersection of pervasive Hellenistic contact, Ancient Near Eastern traditions, Roman political intervention, and the local customs of Galilee” (p.121, The Rabbis, Satlow).
4. “Seen not as a diachronic development within Jewish history but as a Greco-Roman phenomenon, talmud Torah looks suspiciously and surprisingly like philosophy as it was understood at that time. The Rabbis saw the study of texts, accompanied by rigorous training of both mind and body, as a path to personal development and perfection. And if talmud Torah is a kind of Jewish equivalent to Greco-Roman philosophy, then Rabbis are its philosophers” (p.122, The Rabbis, Satlow).
iii. How One Gains Authority
1. For Israelite religion authority was passed on from fathers to sons (inherited). Only a male could be a priest. The son had the option of becoming a priest or not.
2. In Rabbinic Judaism anyone, including women, could be a rabbi. Instead of being an inherited role, it was a process. Authority came from learning the Torah. The position of rabbi was mainly restricted to men, but there still were a few women rabbis.
3. This shift is the result of the temple being destroyed and sacrifices becoming obsolete.
iv. (Good info to know)
1. Similarities
a. Covenant with God
b. Rabbinic Judaism & Israelite religion – the nature of the religion is doing things rather than believing things

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4. What is the “theology of the dual torah”?

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. It is believed that Moses was given two Torahs on Mount Sinai: the Written Torah and the Oral Torah. The Oral Torah was passed down from generation to generation by the Israelites until the decision was made by the rabbis to write it down.
a. The Oral Torah contains the Mishnah, a book that describes Jewish laws and rules. It helps determine how the Torah is to be read and how a Jews is to live his or her life according to the will of God. The Written Torah includes the Bible, which is revered as authoritative. The Orally Torah is second in authority to the Bible.

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5. What is the Mishnah? Give one example of a mishnah and what happens in the text.

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. The Mishnah is a book of rules written to guide Jewish life according to the will of God. Bava Kama 8 is a text from the Mishnah. The Bava Kamma explains criminal law. It briefly describes the problem, a man injuries another man, and then describes all the ways in which he must be repaid and why. If a man injuries another man he must repay for five reasons: depreciation, pain, healing, time, and degradation. In addition to covering the case of a man injuring another man, it also talks about handling matters of property damage to slaves and harm done to pregnant women and parents. This text explains how to justly handle matters of injury.

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6. What is the Midrash? Give one example of a midrash and what happens in the text.

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. Midrash literally means the “seeking.” Midrash seeks to find God’s will in the text. A more formal definition is this: Midrash is a rule driven form of interpretation, or genre, that emerges from some basic rabbinic assumptions about the nature of the biblical text. The rabbinic commentary is necessary when biblical passages are unclear or do not make sense. Rabbis use letters, words, and phrases located in other parts of the Bible to make sense of unclear passages. The results of the rabbis’ interpretations are the explanations revealed in the Midrash.
(Here are some notes on the Midrash.)
Midrash
- Authority comes from the bible
- Biblical interpretation
- Narratives
- Legal material
- Multi-vocal
- It is your choice to agree or disagree with other rabbis or come up with your own explanation
- They seem themselves as important, but not infallible
- No answer is deemed the one and only answer
- They see the bible as having divine clues that lead to different answers
b. An example is from the text titled: Genesis Rabba VIII 5. This Midrash explains what God meant in Genesis when he said: “Let us make man” (Gen. 1:26). This passage causes the reader to question the use of “us” since God is one. Several Rabbis provided a commentary to clarify this confusion and reiterate the monotheistic stance of Judaism. God was talking to the angels; some angels wanted humans to be created and others did not.
(Below is the actual quote with some more notes.)
Genesis Rabba, VIII 5
“And God said: Let us make man” (Gen. 1:26)
Rabbi Simon said: When the Holy One, blessed be He, came to create the first man, the ministering angels divided into groups and parties, some saying: “Let him not be created, and other saying: Let him be created…”
Rav Huna said: While the ministering angels were still arguing and disputing, the Holy One, blessed be He, created man. Then He said to them: “Why do you argue? Man is already made.”
Explanation of quote:
- Defending the concept that there is only one God
- Clarifying story, adding to the story
- Answering the question – why is there a plural? (“Let us”)
-Careful not to contradict the bible
- Fundamental principles of Rabbis – the bible can never be wrong

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7. What is the legal question being answered in Mishnah Bava Kama 8? How would you describe the Mishnah’s approach to the problem? Is there a logical thread that links the various ideas presented?

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a. How do you handle matters of injury and property damage?
b. The Mishnah, in this case, is somewhat harsh. It is well explained and some parts can be put into practice, but other parts of it are hard to accurately enact. The scope of the law is also limited. The first section of the Bava Kama describes what should happen in situations when a man injures another man. A rationale is given for why the offense must be repaid in the five different manners (depreciation, pain, healing, time, and degradation). The issue with the Mishnah’s approach is that there are some aspects that are hard to measure and quantify like the amount of depreciation and loss in status. The rule is successful in repaying for time loss and healing. Another issue is that it does not consider the circumstance of the injury. How did the injury occur? Was it on purpose or an accident? It needs further instruction as to which exact situations should this law be applied.

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8. Why are there different New Years listed in Mishnah Rosh Hashanah? What seems to be the logic behind having four different dates?

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. The Mishnah Rosh Hashanah described various types of tithing occurring at each different New Year. There are four different New Years listed to represent different spheres of life: political, agricultural, seasonal, and religious.

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Babylonian Talmud

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More than a century after the rabbis of Israel edited their discussions of the Mishna and created the Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi), some of the leading Babylonian rabbis compiled their own corpus of legal discussions which had had been going on for some three hundred years. The Babylonian edition was far more extensive than its Israel counterpart, and eventually became the most authoritative compilation of the Oral Law. (When people speak of studying "the Talmud," they almost invariably mean the Bavli rather than the Yerushalmi).

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Palestinian Talmud

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During the centuries following Rabbi Judah's editing of the Mishnah, it was studied exhaustively by generation after generation of rabbis. Eventually, some of these rabbis wrote down their discussions and commentaries on the Mishnah's laws in a series of books known as the Talmud. The rabbis of Palestine edited their discussions of the Mishnah about the year 400: Their work became known as the Palestinian or Eretz Yisrael Talmud (in Hebrew, Talmud Yerushalmi, which literally means “Jerusalem Talmud”).

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yeshiva

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(pl. yeshivot). A Jewish rabbinic academy of higher learning. See also beit midrash.
Beit Midrash (Beis Midrash)
(Heb. House of study). A place set aside for study of sacred texts such as the Torah and the Talmud, generally a part of the synagogue or attached to it.

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1. What are three main features of the Talmud? How is it connected to the Bible, Mishnah and Midrash?

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Halakha (law), Jewish ethics, philosophy, customs, history
a. The Talmud is made up of the Mishanah (the first part which embodies the oral torah) and the Gemara (which comments on the Mishnah); The midrash are made up stories often based off of biblical stories, these stories have some sort of moral or lesson. Its connected to the bible because it explains biblical stories. Tosefta

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2. What are yeshivot (singular = yeshiva)? What impact did they have on Jewish communities?

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They provided the highest level of education in the community. They wielded immense power in interpreting Jewish law. They provided local leadership.
. Yeshivot are Jewish schools where one can study Torah

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3. Where did the Babylonian Talmud gain its authority as a religious and legal authority? How?

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. Mesepotania (modern day iraq)

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4. Who was Rashi? When and where did he live? Why was he important?

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. Rashi was a Biblical commentator ; Born in Troyes France (1040-1105); Rashi interpreted and provided further explanations to many different aspects of the Torah; he had students that would follow him (disciples) and write down what he said.

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5. Why has studying the Talmud been valued over the centuries?

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. Studying the Talmud is valued because often times the laws declared in the Torah are old fashioned or do not apply to todays society. As a result the rabbis debate and set up new laws that are more logical, modern, and applicable to today’s world.

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6. How is the Talmud regarded by Orthodox Jews in modern times? How is it regarded by non-Orthodox Jews?

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. Orthodox are purist and take it very literally; non orthodox take it with a grain of salt

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7. How does the Talmud explore the issue of “eye for an eye”? What is the major question it asks about the Mishnah? What answers does it give? How does this illustrate some of the main features of the Babylonian Talmud?

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The Talmud (in Bava Kamma, 83b-84a), interprets the verses referring to "an eye for an eye" and similar expressions as mandating monetary compensation in tort cases and argues against the interpretations by Sadducees that the Bible verses refer to physical retaliation in kind, using the argument that such an interpretation would be inapplicable to blind or eyeless offenders. Since the Torah requires that penalties be universally applicable, the phrase cannot be interpreted in this manner.

8. If you do something the person deserve some sort of compensation whether physically, legally, or financially

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9. What does the story about Akhnai’s Oven tell us about the Rabbis, their approach to halakhah and/or the time in which they were living? Be as specific as possible.

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It's up to the people to discover what is right and how to live.


The Torah explains "not in Heaven" understood justifies man's authority to interpret the Torah. The Talmud explains, "(The Torah) is not in Heaven" means that the meaning of the Torah itself is to be uncovered not by prophets, or even God's miracles or words, but by man's interpretation and decision-making. In the story of the Oven of Akhnai,[3] "Rabbi Yehoshua affirmed the independence of man's interpretation from divine intervention since this is what God wills. In support he adduces the biblical statement that the Torah is 'not in heaven' (Deuteronomy 30:12)."
In the academic study of Jewish law, the verse "not in Heaven" serves as the Biblical grounding for the jurisprudential structure of halakhah (Jewish law). The source for Rabbinic authority is really from Deuteronomy 17:11 (According to the law which they shall teach you, and according to the judgment which they shall tell you, you shall do). As one author explains, thanks to the midrashic reading of the verse, "...God himself acquiesced in His exclusion from the halakhic process. Having revealed His will in Sinai in the grundnorm, He Himself, according to the Rabbinic explanation, entrusted the interpretation of His will to the Sages."[4]

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1. Why are commandments at the center of Rabbinic Judaism? Where do they come from? Who decides how a commandment should be observed?

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Commandments are at the center of Rabbinic Judaism because they are believed to be divine sent from God. They structure aspects of life and create social boundaries.

The Commandments are believed to be divine and delivered from God.

The Torah decides how a commandment should be observed

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2. According to the Bible, what should and what should not be done on the Sabbath? What are potential punishments for desecrating the Sabbath?

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a. Work is prohibited on the Sabbath. The prohibitions are placed into 39 separate categories. These Categories include planting, plowing, reaping, gathering, thrashing, winnowing, sorting, grinding, sifting, kneading, cooking, shearing, scouring, carding, dyeing, spinning, warping, making 2 loops, weaving, separating two threads, tying, untying, sewing, tearing, trapping, slaughtering, flaying, curing, smoothing, scoring, measured cutting, writing, erasing, building, demolition, extinguishing a fire, igniting a fire, applying the finishing touch, and transferring between domains
b. You must rest on the Sabbath and follow God's commandments; if you don’t you will be punished including death or God might burn down the temple

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3. What is the Bible’s reasoning for the Sabbath?

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a. God created the earth in six days and on the seventh day he rested, so we need to rest too.

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4. What sorts of actions are prohibited on Shabbat, according to the Mishnah? What, if anything, connects these different prohibitions?

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. Cooking is prohibited and is directly referenced, cleaning is prohibited and that is referenced, driving is prohibited and this is referenced under the prohibition of transferring between two domains, writing is prohibited and is directly referenced, the usage of electricity is also prohibited. It is believed that this prohibition derives from the restriction on igniting a flame
a. These are all connected under the prohibition of working

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5. How does halakhah (Jewish religious law) approach the technology of electricity? How is a new technology understood by a traditional religious tradition?

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. In the case where no spark is created, the halakhah still forbids the use of electricity. There is still no clear understanding as to why it is forbidden but the use of electrical appliances is typically prohibited under tradition.
a. New technology is seen as an inconvenience on traditional Jews. Every new technological advance is discussed within the community and the effects on the Mitvah or Shabbat are analyzed.

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6. Why are incandescent lights prohibited on Shabbat? Is this understood as a biblical prohibition (more serious) or a rabbinic prohibition (less serious)? Why?

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. The argument is that incandescent lights violate a Mitzvah. It is debated which Mitzvah is being violated. The most accepted position of Ravad believe the prohibition of “lighting a flame” is being violated with an incandescent light. Others believe the prohibition of “cooking” is being violated with using incandescent lights.
a. Both stances believe incandescent lights violate a biblical prohibition. They believe it is a biblical prohibition because current flows through a filament causing it to glow, which creates fire despite the absence of a “flame” and regardless of whether that which is on fire is consumed.

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7. How do traditional Shabbat observances, as described by Greenberg, balance communal and family experiences?

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. Shabbat is referenced under “delight” and “honor” Shabbat is delight because you are brought closer through good food, drink, communal song and dance and peace. The honor to God on Shabbat comes from anticipation, participation, special dress, cleaning, washing, and personally participating in the creation of the atmosphere. Through the atmosphere and participation the self and the family are expanded within themselves and within their faith.

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8. Name three different Shabbat rituals and explain the rationale behind them.

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. Eighteen minutes before the sabbath the women light the candles. The lighting of the candles represents the Shabbat symbol of light and warmth. The candles are lit before sunset meaning good should be done in extra measure. Some mothers take this time to bless the children. Once the candles have been lit the rewards from Shabbat can begin.
a. The family heads to the Synagogue for a Shabbat service. The service is used to help families relieve stress from the previous week, and get them in the mood for the Friday night festivities with Torah reading. It is also used for individuals to reconnect with their community.
b. The Kiddush is performed by the male head of the household. The Kiddush is spoken prayer and each member of the household has red wine poured within their cup. The purpose behind the Kiddush is to give testimony. It is used to attempt radical amazement in the glory of existence. It is also a commitment to the covenant of to their role in perfecting the world

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1. Halakhah

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Jewish law, established in the Torah


Halakhah comes from three sources: from the Torah, from laws instituted by the rabbis and from long-standing customs. Halakhah from any of these sources can be referred to as a mitzvah (commandment; plural: mitzvot). The word "mitzvah" is also commonly used in a casual way to refer to any good deed. Because of this imprecise usage, sophisticated halakhic discussions are careful to identify mitzvot as being mitzvot d'oraita (an Aramaic word meaning "from the Torah") or mitzvot d'rabbanan (Aramaic for "from the rabbis"). A mitzvah that arises from custom is referred to as a minhag. Mitzvot from all three of these sources are binding, though there are differences in the way they are applied (see below).

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2. Mitzvot

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commandments There are “613” Mitzvot

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3. Noahide Commandments

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set of moral imperatives that according to the Talmud were given by God. There are 7 and they include: prohibition of murder, idolatry, theft, sexual immorality, blasphemy, the consumption of flesh from an animal while it is still alive, and the requirement to have just laws

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4. Shabbat

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The day of rest

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1. What are two key aspects of prayer that were instituted by the Rabbis?

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a. Community and verbal prayer (?)

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2. Why does the Mishnah institute blessings before and after eating?

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. Eating without first reciting the proper blessings is like stealing from God by eating foods consecrated to the temples. The blessing, in acknowledging God’s ultimate creations of the food, makes if available for human consumption

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3. When did the first formal Jewish prayer book emerge? Why is it important? What change in approach to prayer do prayer books represent?

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. In the late middle ages; fixed texts give worshipers the reassurance that their prayers are correct (even though rabbis required alternativeness); once printing made possible the production of affordable prayer books for the masses, local variations began to disappear.

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4. Were women required to pray? What do we know about Jewish women and prayer?

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. They were allowed to pray but they weren’t allowed to be leaders. The Mishnah exempted woman from reciting the Shema but required them to participate in grace after meals. The rabbinic system presumed that this care of family and home should fall on woman, and it exempted woman from most “positive time-bound commandments”

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5. Why does Langer conclude by stating that “Liturgy is not a static entity” (355)? Give two examples of the dynamic aspects of Jewish liturgy.

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. When texts become fixed, worshipers develop new needs that lead them to reinterpret their fixed texts or add new elements to them. By reciting the Amidah, that is the “fixed” way of sacrificing and worshipping God in modern day. (1) historical- early on, very little was written, prayer leaders just spoke around what was in the Torah; interpreted it (2) Amidah- reflects different times of the year

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6. What is the Amidah? What relationship between the individual and God is expressed in the Amidah?

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. “Standing”; for the posture in which it is recited, 18, referring to the structure. Its times were correlated to the times for the Temple’s perpetual offerings, and it now functioned as Israel’s covenantal worship of God.

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7. What are three features of synagogues, based on looking at examples of global synagogues on Synagogues360? Are these features constant or do they change from synagogue to synagogue?

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. Features change from synagogue to synagogue based off of their location and when/ where they were built. The European synagogues are more cathedral like. Reform synagogues will usually include and organ while orthodox will not. Three features are having the bema in the front of the synagogue vs having one in the direct middle with everyone facing different ways around it, stain glass windows, an arc that houses the Torah and its’ books. The sephardic torah sits upright in a medal casing and the ashekenazi torah has a dress on it.

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8. What are three religious aspects of everyday Jewish life?

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. (1) prayer (2) dietary (3) clothing

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1. Amidah

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:“Standing”; 18 benedictions that offer praise, petitions, and give thanks.

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1. What historical factors prompted major changes in Jewish religious practice? When? Name at least two different changes.

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a. Jewish Enlightenment (Halskalah) and political emancipation. They effected European Jews. This happened in the Early modern period in the course of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Jews were beginning to discard religious practices and believed Jewish observances conflicted with modern European life. Jews started to convert to Christianity as well.

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1. What historical factors prompted major changes in Jewish religious practice? When? Name at least two different changes.

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a. Jewish Enlightenment (Halskalah) and political emancipation. They effected European Jews. This happened in the Early modern period in the course of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Jews were beginning to discard religious practices and believed Jewish observances conflicted with modern European life. Jews started to convert to Christianity as well.

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2. What have been the big issues of the Reform movement in America?

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. How to provide its members with guidance on ceremonial observance without creating another legal structure, young people thought the prayer book was too formal and outdated so they needed to find a new prayer book, it has strayed away from Jewish practices, but is now going back to it.


Major issues: intermarriage, patrillineal decent

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3. How does the Conservative movement differ from Reform? Who did it initially appeal to?

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. The reform movement is controlled primarily by the congregational organization, UAHC, but conservative is dominated by rabbinical school and the theological seminary, The Jewish Theological Seminary, JTS.
a. Conservative Judaism takes cues from the rabbinic scholars at JTS, where reform judaism takes cues from their own leaders.


Holding onto more tradition than reform but less than Orthodox
Appealed to many early 20th centry eastern european immigrants

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Who founded Reconstructionist Judaism, and what are its key points?

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. Mordecai M. Kaplan inspired it, Ira Eisenstein formally created it.
a. Dispenses supernatural ideas about God and emphasize the moral genius of Jewish People. Binding Jewish people together and to keep them interested and involved.


Ethical imparative and social justice
Center of beliefs
Reorienting Judaism
Shaped by post-war American society and individual choice
Commandments are viewed as folk, and embrace what they want

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5. What are the two main streams of Orthodox Judaism? What separates the two?

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Ultra orthodox wants to be separate from society where modern orthodox wants to maintain their religious obligations while mixing into society.

. Modern Orthodox and Ultra-Orthodox
a. Modern Orthodox want to synthesize the best of traditional Judaism with contemproary secular culture. Ultra-Orthodox Jews refer to themselves as haredim or “Those in awe of God” and are strictly in their community and have hierarchies and organizational structures.

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6. What roles do/can women play in the different denominations?

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. In Reform Judaism, woman can be rabbis, women cantors, and women can be elected presidents of the synagoges. They are all treated equally.
a. Orthodox Jews do not let women have positions and do not treat them as they do the men.
b. In Conservative Judaism, women can participate and speak on the Torah. They can be rabbis, and participate but are still second to men.

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7. Where do Orthodox, Conservative and Reform Judaism stand on one of the following issues: Commandments; Torah; Women; or Intermarriage?

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. Orthodox: They do not allow intermarriage groups in their society. They are very strict on their rules of who is in their group and have to be very religious.
a. Conservative: sticks to tradition, is open to new ideas, but is not particularly all for intermarriage (tries to discourage it).
b. Reform: Reform wants anyone new and welcomes any couples to come. They like intermarriage couples, and they are open to anyone for it.

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8. What is currently the largest Jewish religious denomination in the United States? How has that changed over time?

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Reform; it used to be conservatism but we are in a more modern world and things have changed.

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Orthodox
Commandments

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According to Orthodox Judaism, Jewish law today is based on the commandments in the Torah, as viewed through the discussions and debates contained in classical rabbinic literature, especially the Mishnah and the Talmud. Orthodox Judaism thus holds that the halakha represents the "will of God", either directly, or as closely to directly as possible. The laws are from the word of God in the Torah, using a set of rules also revealed by God to Moses on Mount Sinai, and have been derived with the utmost accuracy and care, and thus the Oral Law is considered to be no less the word of God. If some of the details of Jewish law may have been lost over the millennia, they were reconstructed in accordance with internally consistent rules; see The 13 rules by which Jewish law was derived.

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Conservative
Commandments

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Commandments
Very often the observance is also a modification of these Torah laws, not a rejection of them outright. The issue of mixing wool and linen is a good example. While indeed most Conservative Jews don't have their daily clothing checked for "shaatnes," the mixture of wool and linen, nonetheless they would not knowingly mix them in making their own or purchasing a tallit.

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Conservative
Torah

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“tradition and change” following halakhah, but making adjustments in response to modern society
Conservative Judaism views halakha (Jewish religious law) as normative and binding. Examining Jewish history and rabbinic literature through the lens of academic criticism, Conservative Judaism believes that halakha has always evolved to meet the changing realities of Jewish life, and that it must continue to do so in the modern age.

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Conservative
Intermarriage

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Conservative Rabbis are not allowed to perform intermarriages (marriages between Jews and non-Jews). However, the Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism has a different sociological approach to this issue than does Orthodoxy, although agreeing religiously. In a press release it has stated:
“If our children end up marrying non-Jews, we should not reject them. We should continue to give our love and by that retain a measure of influence in their lives, Jewishly and otherwise.”

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Reform
Commandments

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The adoption of the radical Pittsburgh Platform in 1885, which dismissed observance of the ritual commandments and Jewish peoplehood as "anachronistic", created a permanent wedge between the Reform movement and more traditional American Jews.

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German Reform

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German Jews were desperately trying to find a way to remain connected to Judaism, but become more acculturated into German Society


First reforms at the New Israelite Temple Association Hamburg (1817)
Recreating Judaism as a moral and ethical system that externally represents German Protestantism
They attempted to mix Germans and Jews up through eliminating practices that isolate jews
No kosher, mixed marriages, etc.

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Ultra-Orthodox

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The term 'Haredi' Judaism emerged in response to the 19th-century Jewish Enlightenment which had given birth to the Reform movement. In contrast to the ideals of Modern Orthodoxy which attempted to embrace modernity, the approach of the Ultra-Orthodox was to maintain a steadfast adherence to Jewish law by segregating itself from modern society.

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Orthodox

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a formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics canonized in the Talmudic texts ("Oral Torah") and subsequently developed and applied by the later authorities known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and Acharonim.

Modern Orthodox Judaism (also Modern Orthodox or Modern Orthodoxy) is a movement within Orthodox Judaism that attempts to synthesize Jewish values and the observance of Jewish law, with the secular, modern world.
Modern Orthodoxy draws on several teachings and philosophies, and thus assumes various forms. In the United States, and generally in the Western world, "Centrist Orthodoxy" – underpinned by the philosophy of Torah Umadda ("Torah and [Scientific] Knowledge") – is prevalent. In Israel, Modern Orthodoxy is dominated by Religious Zionism; however, although not identical, these movements share many of the same values and many of the same adherents.[1]

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4. Conservative

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: Integrates the traditions of Jewish culture with modernity; expresses a deep commitment to the values, concepts, and rituals of the traditions, as well as the individual conscience, democracy, equal rights, and protection for all of humanity

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5. Reform

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Introduced innovation while preserving tradition, embrace diversity while asserting commonality, affirms beliefs without rejecting those who doubt and brings faith to sacred texts without sacrificing critical scholarship

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6. Reconstructionist

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Integrates a deep respect for traditional Judaism with the insights and ideas of contemporary social, intellectual and spiritual life


Came entirely from US
Ethical imparative and social justice
Center of beliefs
Reorienting Judaism
Shaped by post-war American society and individual choice
Commandments are viewed as folk, and embrace what they want

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1. What distinguished between insider and outside at the ritual bath (mikvah)?

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a. Any insider will meticulously wash every last speck of dirt/filth from their entire body before entering one of the sacred, ritual baths - not every outsider would be as careful about this. Only community insiders get attention, outsiders are nobody. If an insider were to “see” an outsider, this would mean that the insider is acknowledging that the outsider has seen him in all of his nakedness. This is a notion that would be considered inconceivable to all in the mikvah community.

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2. What are two historical factors that led to the emergence of ultra-Orthodox Judaism?

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. Industrialization/Urbanization and Emancipation
i. Movement of population into urban areas lead to family and religious traditions becoming quickly outdated → Faith was expected to give way to reason
ii. People began to look beyond the boundaries of their tribe/family/religion/community toward a more individualistic mindset
iii. Traditional Jewish values and practices began to crumble in favor of this “emancipated individualism”
iv. Jews began to choose whether they wanted to remain part of an outcast people or assimilate into a culture that allowed them to do what they wanted, and many were choosing the latter → Jews were becoming “Ex-Jews”
v. The Jews that held strong to community and traditional values emerged as the Orthodox and Ultra Orthodox

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3. What are three defining features of haredi life?

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. Another name for “ultra-orthodox” → Follow faith and laws strictly outlined by the Torah. Traditionally “true” Jews.
a. “Yiddishkeit”
. The belief that the new is never improved; only corrupted. The goal is to only aspire to live as rightly as previous generations of haredim Jews lived. It is the responsibility of a true haredi Jew to feel a continuous existential angst against the threat that modern society and cultural influences poses to changing the true, traditional Jewish lifestyle. (Be a traditional Jew)
b. Primary vernacular is Yiddish

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4. What does Adam Gopnick see as the Jewish elements of his identity? What marks him as a Jew?

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. Gopnik makes light of the fact that he admittedly doesn’t have the strongest relationship with his religion, and it has never been a MAJOR part of his identity. He notes that the first time he ever felt a sense of being Jewish was when he found out of the Jewish comedians in New York. He goes on to mention how his recent celebration of Purim inspired him to possibly join a synagogue and get more in touch with Judaism.

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5. What makes Gopnick uncomfortable about Judaism?

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. Gopnik is unable to read “beyond” the religious texts of Judaism and truly understand their underlying meanings as well as what significance they have to the religion
. This makes it difficult for him to identify himself as a Jew deeper than anything other than at a surface level

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6. For Gopnick, what place does the Bible and religious practice have in his life and sense of self? (Extremely similar question to #4, a lot of overlap in #’s 4, 5, and 6)

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. Gopnik notes that he owns one King James Bible, which he rarely touches. Similarly to what was mentioned in question 5, he struggles with reading past the text and deciphering what was significant and what was merely conventional. Has maintained a rather distant relationship with Judaism and its practices to this point in his life.

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7. What was one point upon which Rabbi Sharon Mars and Rabbi Feivel Strauss agreed? What was one point upon which they differed? (Multiple correct answers here, this is just what I took from that day)

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. Both spoke to their time living in Israel and expressed how significant of an impact it had on developing a relationship with each of their Judaisms, respectively.
a. Rabbi Strauss explored the topic of women’s role in Judaism. He explored the difficulty of a woman’s obligation to both her religion as well as her family, and indirectly suggested there may not be a place in Judaism for women rabbis when they also have a family to take care of and a home to keep.Obviously, Rabbi Mars is a woman and nonverbally opposes this idea.

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1. How were Jews treated before Mohammad? After Mohammad?

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Before Mohammad seemed to have a positive view on the Jews, because in both historical and present contexts they were known as the children of Israel. After Mohammad moved to Medina where the Jews wanted no part of him or the Arabs, there was a tension that created a lasting impact on the relationship between the Jews and Islamic people. This was a negative attitude towards Jews because of the Jews in Medina and their rejection of Mohammad.

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2. What is a dhimmi? How were dhimmis treated? Give at least three specific examples.

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A dhimmi is a protected person and who were protected by Koranic law and allowed to practice their religion in recognition of submitting to Muslim authority. Dhimmis were treated worse than Muslims they were treated as “second class” status. One example is they weren’t allowed to bear arms, ride horses, or use normal riding saddles on their mounts. Another is example is they weren’t allowed to build new synagogues or churches or repair old ones. Final example is they were never to raise a hand against a Muslim and they had to wear clothing that set them apart from the rest of society.

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3. When did Arabic become important from Jewish communities living under Muslim rule? Why?

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Around the tenth century Arabic became important for Jewish communities living under Muslim rule because the medium for nearly all forms of written expression had become Arabic and because the society was changing in the wake of the Islamic conquests but the transition for Jews wasn’t very hard because the languages, of Hebrew and Arabic, are similar.

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4. Who were the Karaites? Why were they significant?

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The Karaites were a sect that denied the authenticity of the Oral Torah, accepting only the Bible as the principal source of Jewish law. Karaites were so significant because the laws of Karaism are harsher and more restrictive than in the rabbinic tradition. Also because the freethinking of the Karaites troubled the Jews because of the contradictions between religious revelation, on the one hand and science and philosophy, on the other.

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4. What was Jewish life like in Islamic Spain? Why?

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The Jews, and in fact, all religions lived a very well life in Islamic Spain. This was a time of openness. Judaism, Catholicism, and Islam were all welcomed. Jews weren't tormented and persecuted because of their religion. As long as they abided by the laws and paid the extra taxes then they were to live in peace. This is one of the high points in history because we learn more about recreation life of the jews other than just religious because Jews were able to write about what they felt and observed. A lot of secular poetry comes out from this time period.

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5. What are two factors that led to the decline of Jewish life in the Muslim world?

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One factor that led to the decline of Jewish life in the Muslim world was Jews began to consider a Western education which was a necessary entry ticket into the modern world and its benefits. The Alliance Israelite Universelle (AIU) was the first international Jewish philanthropic organization, which established a network of schools extending from Morocco to Persia. More factors include the establishment of the State of Israel; the anti-Jewish violence that erupted in 1945, 1947, and 1948; the highly restrictive administrative measures imposed upon Jews in many Muslim countries; and the rapid dissolution of colonialism in 1950s and early 1960s resulted in the decline of Jewish life in the Muslim world.

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6. Where did Maimonides live, and how did that affect his work?

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Maimonides lived in Spain, then moved to North Africa then Egypt and stayed there in Cairo. He came from a society that were accepting of the Jews but he kept fleeing from the Arabic culture. This affected his work because it changed his thinking of contemporary trends and Jewish theology, his Greek philosophy, and Greek science. He was a medical man and the Greek philosophy and Greek science affected his medicine work.

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7. Why is Maimonides so important in the Jewish religious and philosophical tradition? What were two of his texts?

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Maimonides was so important in the Jewish religious and philosophical tradition because he brought the great Andalusian tradition of religious and secular scholarship to its apogee. He established a dynasty of communal leaders who served as the nagids of Egypt for the next three hundred years. His texts were The Guide of the Perplexed and Mishneh Torah. The Guide of the Perplexed was Maimonides explaining in a thorough and systematic manner the anthropomorphic terms in the Bible as well as to illuminate obscure biblical parables.
From lecture his legacy on Jewish law was the new approach to codifying law and foundation for later rabbinic authorities, for Jewish philosophy his new theological discourse, reason us revelation, complex, esoteric, importance of science.

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8. How did Maimonides define what it means to be a Jew? Name at least three elements of his definition.

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Maimonides defines what it means to be a Jew by the 13 Principles and the Resurrection of the Dead. Three elements of his definition are the belief in the existence of the Creator, the belief in G-d’s absolute and unparalleled unity, the belief in G-d’s eternity, and the belief in the divine origin of the Torah, and the belief in the arrival of the Messiah and the messianic era.

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1. Dhimmi

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A dhimmi is a protected person and who were protected by Koranic law and allowed to practice their religion in recognition of submitting to Muslim authority.

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2. Pact of Umar:

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The rules that governed the status of the dhimmis that was probably based on the capitulation agreement in 639 between the second caliph, Umar Ibn al-Khattab and the Greek Patriarch of Jerusalem, Sophronios.

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3. Maimonides

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Acknowledged as the greatest Jewish thinker of the Middle Ages. He was also a consummate jurist and a man of science. He composed The Guide of the Perplexed and Mishneh Torah.

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4. Al-Andalus

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Islamic Iberia was called this by the Muslims and Sepharad by the Jews, and has evoked visions of refined splendor from the Middle Ages until modern time.

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5. Samuel the Nagid

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The chief minister of the Berber Kingdom of Granada. He was the quintessential representative of the Andalusian Jewish courtier.


was a Talmudic scholar, grammarian, philologist, soldier, politician, patron of the arts, and an influential medieval Hebrew poet who lived in Iberia at the time of the Moorish rule. His poetry was one area in which he was well known for.[2] As a great contributor to many aspects of history, such as the lives of Jews, the arts, as well as the court of Granada, he is an important figure in the study of Muslim-Jewish relations. He was an elite of Jews as well as Arabs, and perhaps the most influential Jew, politically, in Muslim Spain. [3]
Because Jews were not permitted to hold public office in Islamic nations as an agreement made in the Pact of Umar, that Samuel Nagid, a Jew or dhimmi, should hold such a high public office was rare.His example was used to support the Golden Age theory, regarding Jewish life under Muslim rule, rather than the lachrymose view. His unique position as the viziership, made him the highest ranking Jewish courtier in all of Spain. Recognizing this, in the year of 1027, he took on the title of nagid, or Prince.[3] The peculiar fact regarding his position as the top general in the Granada army was that he was a Jew. That a Jew would command the Muslim army, having them under his authority, was an astonishing feat.

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1. What were three different main elements of Jewish life in Iraq, according to Joel Beinin (Foreword)?

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(1) Long history of the Jews because present day Iraq was ancient Babylon and this is the origin of the Babylonian Talmud. (2) Jews, Muslims, and Christians were all integrated and lived freely with each other and minimal conflict. (3) There was a wide range of socioeconomic people. Some Jews were rich and others fell in the middle class and even the poor. This wasn’t just for money status but it was also for everything in Baghdad.

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2. Rejwan argues that in the early twentieth century, Baghdad was a Jewish city. Why?

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Rejwan argued that in the early twentieth century Baghdad was a Jewish city because in 1904 forty thousand of the sixty thousand population were Jewish. Also because in October 1921, the last official yearbook of the vilayet totaled the number inhabitants as 202,200 and 80,000 of them were Jewish. Finally because the British governor in 1919 fixed the number of sheep to be slaughtered daily in Baghdad East at 220 for Jewish butchers and 160 for Muslim and other butchers.

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3.Was the writer’s family religious? What aspects of Judaism seemed to be most important in their lives?

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Yes the writer’s family was religious not “orthodox” in the sense of European Jews but as observant in the strictest sense of the word. The aspects of Judaism that seemed to be most important in their lives was going to synagogue on Saturday mornings for Shabbat and also for other holidays, lighting the Shabbat candles and reciting Kiddush and doing other Shabbat Friday night rituals like esheth hayil, the chanting by all the males of the family, and finally going to the neighborhood Muslim teashop with an empty pot to get free boiling water for the tea they made on Shabbat Saturday mornings.

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4.According to Rejwan, what was the basis for identity – and especially for differentiating between different people living in Iraq – in the early years of the 20th century?

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According to Rejwan the basis for identity and differentiating between different people living in Iraq in the early years of the 20th century was by the socioeconomic status of the family, it all depended on the way one considered the overall economic and social scene.

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5. How does Rejwan describe his father? His mother? What do these portraits suggest to us about Iraqi Jewish life?

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Rejwan described his father as kind of tentative in his decisions and said he would always give in to “Mother’s pleas” which mean his mom held the power of the house while his dad was more submissive, this was later in life after he became blind. His father was also blind and Rejwan said he had a fine analytical mind, was literate and a true intellectual, severe, self-disciplined and craved order and was very tolerant with Rejwan and his siblings, and finally had an abundant amount of stories to tell. His mother was full of philosophy and also said that if you ignored annoyances then they wouldn’t affect him. He described her as “classic” and “noble”, and a hard working home-maker and also was very persistent in her thinking that if you think of something deeply enough your wish would come true. These portraits about his parents suggest to us that in Iraqi Jewish life the men weren’t the only power in the family and that it actually didn’t matter man or woman who had the power in the family.

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6. Where did Rejwan look for meaning and intellectual stimulation? What ideas influenced his thinking as a young adult? What does that suggest about Iraqi Jewish life?

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Rejwan looked for meaning and intellectual stimulation through reading books as a child, by age 14 or 15 he had built himself a sizeable home library. A big influence on him was the Spanish Civil War because he learned that the only way of learning anything authoritative about the world and about its warring ideologies was to know a foreign language, preferably English. So he self-tutored himself English. This suggests that Iraqi Jewish life needed to adapt to society in the world with accustoming themselves with the English language.

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7. What are two recurring aspects of Jewish life in Iraq that surfaced in the film Forget Baghdad?

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The two recurring aspects of Jewish life in Iraq that surfaced in the film Forget Baghdad are the violence and stereotypes the Jews endured and also the aspect of how some Jews were rich but also middle of the pact for economic life. Other recurring aspects were the stress placed on education for the Jewish community, the interaction between all the religions and how they actually did communicate and interact with Christians and Muslims.

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1. Nissim Rejwan

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An Iraqi Jew that wrote an influential autobiography about his life growing up in Baghdad and the ups and downs of living in a split cultured society.

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2. Baghdad

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Was in located in the center of the Ottoman Empire and during the early twentieth century was home to a significant amount of Jews, basically where the Jews concentrated at that time.

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3. Farhoud

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Was a violent massacre of the Jewish population in Baghdad, Iraq in 1941 during the Jewish holiday of Shavout.

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1. When did the Jewish population in Europe (also called Western Christendom) become significant? Why?

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· Significant change in world Jewish demography was the result largely of alterations in the patterns of economic, political, and military power in the Western world, as Christian Europe, beginning around the year 1000, unexpectedly surged forward in population, economy, military might, political organization, and cultural creativity. As Western Christendom advanced it became home to an increasingly large Jewish population. Roughly the eleventh through fifteenth centuries, second half of the Middle Ages = pronounced shift in the center of gravity in Jewish population, power and creativity.

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2. What were some of the challenged posed by and faced by the Jewish minority in Europe, for both Jews and Christians?

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· For Christian majority, Jews became an object of everyday concern = Jews were the only dissenting group in most of Roman Catholic Europe, they posed significant problems to both ecclesiastical and lay authorities; the issue was how to derive maximal benefit from Jewish minority within the bounds set by the dictates of the church and the sensibilities of the populace.
· Christians decreed limits to the place Jews might occupy in Christian society. Church claimed that God rejected and abandoned Jews in favor of new covenant people. They also claimed Jewish responsibility for the crucifixion of Jesus. Christian religious and spiritual creativity served as a potent challenge. They also tried to convert Jews to Christianity by preaching and missionizing.

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3. How did the Roman Catholic Church deal with the Jews?

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· Constitutio pro Judaeis (Formal Statement on the Jews) proclaimed the right of Jews to live peaceably in Christian society. Church leadership ensured the promised protection. The violence against Jews is forbidden (Bernard of Clairvaux)
• Jewish rights were guaranteed, but strictly limited. Prohibited to harm or threaten Christianity or Christians. = blasphemy; no criticism of Christianity; prohibited from owning slaves or occupying political offices (no power over Christians); dress code for Jews; confined urban areas for Jews (ghetto)

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4. What prompted negative popular perceptions of Jewish in Europe? What impact did these negative perceptions have on Jews?

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• Because of their sinfulness God broke the covenant with Jews. God later sent a Messianic figure but Jews rejected him and consigned him to crucifixion. In this scenario, the rejected Jews were consigned by God to intense suffering(destruction of their homeland, loss of political independence and a fate of endless wandering). Jews were also a newcomers; Jewish moneylending was perceived as a vehicle to exploit and damage Christians; notion that Jews kill young innocent Christian boys for Passover ritual.
o Fostered a wide range of anti-Jewish allegations that proliferated during the second half of the Middle Ages; It also caused protection for Jews: Since God has punished the Jews fully, Jews had a right to live peaceably in Christian society.
• The Apostle Paul – the divine rejection and punishment are temporary in order to pave the way for non-Jewish participation in divine blessing. The Jews would eventually repent and be reunited with God. This meant that Jews were to be treated respectfully and preached to out of love in order to hasten their reconciliation with God.
• Augustine, Church Father =pragmatically noted the proclamation of the divinity of Hebrew Bible is a firm foundation for Christian claims of the Jesus writings. Reality of Jewish sins and punishment = evidence of divine retribution.

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5. How did Jews seek to ensure their physical and material well-being?

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• A number of important Jewish leaders exposed themselves to considerable physical danger in order to win from the emperor a special decree of protection due to their importance in the economy.
• Aaron of Lincoln created a successful banking network: careful government monitoring of loan arrangements and accurate record keeping. Loan arrangements were recorded in triplicate – borrower, lender and royal archive.
• 1st step - to persuade overlords to provide requisite protection(successful communication with both lay and ecclesiastical authorities in Christian Europe) 2 - meaningful grounds for governmental intervention (either highlighted the ecclesiastical theory, pointed to promises made earlier, or emphasized Jewish utility [i.e the intervention of authorities had to be purchased]) 3-economic success (trade, moneylending)
• Autonomic local authorities (court system,social welfare, education) = church supported in order to achieve separatism = tax-collection was necessary in ensuring safety; two types of authority (wealthy elite and the learned, rabbinic elite)

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6. Why did Jews become involved in finance and related money-transactions? What were the benefits and liabilities of these professions?

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• Christians were prohibited to be involved in moneylending by church, therefore Jews took up that niche
• Moneylending was thought to be a distinct threat to Christian society
o legal limit was to be set for the interest that Jewish lenders might charge
o The benefits = protection from authorities
o Jewish lenders were protected against claims of lower amount lent, that the loan had already been paid, the pawned object has been stolen, loss of the pledge through fire.

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7. What was the basis of the accusation of ritual murder? What, from Ephraim Ben Jacob’s perspective, actually happened?

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“A Jew [Isaac bar Eleazar] rode up to water his horse; a common soldier was also there watering the horse of his master. The Jew bore on his chest an untanned hide, but one of the corners had become loose and was sticking out of his coat. When, in the gloom, the soldier's horse saw the white side of the hide, it was frightened and sprang back, and it could not be brought to water”. The Christian servant hastened back to his master and said that Jew threw Christian child into the river.” The soldier knew that his master would rejoice at the fall of the Jews, because he hated a certain Jewess influential in the city”.

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1. Ashkenaz

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designation of the first relatively compact area of settlement of Jews in N.W. Europe, initially on the banks of the Rhine (identified with, and denotes in its narrower sense, Germany, German Jewry, and German Jews ("Ashkenazim"), as well as their descendants in other countries.) It has evolved a broader connotation denoting the entire Ashkenazi Jewish cultural complex, comprising its ideas and views, way of life and folk mores, legal concepts and formulations, and social institutions.

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2. Sepharad

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Hebrew word for Spain; refers to Jews of Iberian nd Oriental background. The descendants of Jews who left Spain or Portugal after the 1492 expulsion are referred to as Sephardim.

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3. blood libel:

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the allegation that Jews murder non-Jews, especially Christian children, in order to obtain blood for the Passover or other rituals. The blood libel led to trials and massacres of Jews in the Middle Ages and early modern times; it was revived by the Nazis.