Islamic History 945 - Present

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The Great Seljuks

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Oghuzz Turkmen from the steppes who reconquered the Middle East. Sunni Revival, instituted the Sultanate. Conquered Baghdad by invitation 1055

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Seljuks of Rum

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Conquered Anatolia (Alp Arslan) mamluk forces 1071 - Battle of Manzikert,created Turkish Federation

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Sunni revival

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Mid 11th - 12th c. Began under the Selkuks in 1055, Architecture, standardization of religious practices

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Mazalim

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Turkish tribal traditions mixed with Islamic Sharia court practices, "Appellate Court System"

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Iqta

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Feudal estate that enables the right to collect taxes for the military caste

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Waqf

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Most important financial institution in the Mid evil Middle East, public education, hospital, charitable act, tax shelter, circumvent inheritance laws

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Madrasa

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vizier al-Mulk: university, strictly sunni, law school

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"counter crusades"

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1144 - muslim response to European aggression in the holy land,

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fada'il literature

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"the merits of Jerusalem"

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Zangi

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wanted to unite N. Syria, answered the call to jihad, eliminated the 1st crusader state.

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Salah al-Din

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vassal of Nuri al-Din, unified greater Syria, defeated crusader forces in Holy land.

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Genghis Khan

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unifies the Mongol tribes at the 1206 National Assembly (Quryltai) believed in "divine mandate"

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Qara Qorum

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Capital of Mongol empire, began as family campground of Genghis, located in far eastern inner Mongolia

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Mongol Successor States

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lands divided between Genghis heirs. Yuan dynasty, Jagatai, Il Khanids, Golden Horde

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Il Khanids

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Iran and Iraq, at war with Mamluks until 1330's, established by Hulega, greatest enemies of mamluks, border wars in the levant over access to the Med.

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Golden Horde

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Mongol overlords of Russia, allies of Mamluks, based on slave trade, provided the slaves of Egypt that went on to become Mamluks.

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The Mamluk Sultanate

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Last great empire of the Middle Ages, solidified the sunni revival, first to have an entirely mamluk force, culmination of the ethnic superiority of the Turkish elites

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'Ayn Jalut

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where the Mamluks stopped the southern Mongol advances

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Qala'unid "dynasty"

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(al-Munsar) Mamluk who started a short lived dynastic reign,

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al-Nasir Muhammad

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Mamluk cultural height, 1310 returned to Cairo with a Bedouin force and reigned for 30yrs, improved Egyptian infrastructure, won the love of peope with food.

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Ibn Taymiyya

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Ibn Taymiyyah (January 22, 1263 – 1328), was a famous Muslim scholar born in Harran, located in what is now Turkey, close to the Syrian border. He lived during the troubled times of the Mongol invasions. As a member of the school founded by Ibn Hanbal, he sought the return of Islam to its sources, the Qur'an and the Sunnah

Front 22

Saints Cults

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Veneration and worship of Islamic holy figures centered around their shrines and burial places.

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Gunpowder Empires

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Ottomans, Safavids, Mughals

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Istanbul

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Constantinople renamed after having been conquered by Mehmet II,

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Suleimann I - "the Magnificent"

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"the lawgiver" perfected the use of cannon, wanted to move deep into E. Europe (Vienna)

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Janissaries

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Slave soldiers, trained at the palace school, salaried, members of the Bektashi dervish (Sufi) order.

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deveshirme

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collection of Janissaries forces by forced taxation in the form of people.

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the Millet system

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semi autonomous political system based on ethnic/religious/geographical regions.

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capitulations

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part of effort to repopulate Istanbul centered on exemptions from taxes for europeans merchants

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Treaty of Karlowitz

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Vienna, end of expansionism, beginning of the end, from here on out the empire only contracted.

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Qizilbash

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militant sufis who brought the Safavids to power

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Safavids

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Gunpowder state in Iran, switch to 12er Shi'ite Islam, founded by Qizilbash, urban Shi'ites, Armenian converts, and Caucasian captives

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Isma'il I

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1st shah, @ 12, Co-opts Safawiyya

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Safawiyya

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Militant sufi organization

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Shahanshah

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"king of Kings"

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Shah 'Abbas I

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the accessible monarch, removed the Qizailbash, replaced with mamluks, moved capital to Isfahan.

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'Ali Qapu

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Safavid Royal Palace

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Sultanates of Delhi

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non-muslim majority, Muslim-Hindu synthesis, WEALTH!

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Delhi and Agra

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Capitals of the Mughal Empire

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Akbar

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founder of Mughal Empire

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Shah Jahan

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was the ruler of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent from 1628 until 1658. The name Shah Jahan comes from Persian meaning "King of the World." He was the fifth Mughal ruler after Babur, Humayun, Akbar, and Jahangir. While young, he was a favourite of Akbar. He succeeded to the throne upon his father's death in 1627. He is considered to be one of the greatest Mughals and his reign has been called the Golden Age of Mughals.

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Taj Mahal

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The Taj Mahal at Agra built as a tomb for the wife of Shah Jahan; Mumtaz Mahal.

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Aurangzeb

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was the 6th Mughal Emperor whose reign lasted from 1658 until his death in 1707. Aurangzeb's reign as the Mughal monarch was marked by many wars of expansion.
Aurangzeb, having ruled most of the Indian subcontinent for nearly half a century, was the second longest reigning Mughal emperor after Akbar. In this period he successfully brought a larger area, notably in southern India, under Mughal rule than ever before.

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"political Islam"

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the response to the collapse of the gunpowder empires, a populace response to state weakness and instability.

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Wahhabis

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believed that the fall of the Ottomans was due to sufism, wanted to return to the Islamic ideal of the early Mecca period.

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Islamic revival

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or "renewal movement", revival of personal piety and maintenance of Islamic identity. "revival of the heart"-Gunpowder empires fell because of lack of individual support for the state. Ahmad ibn Idris

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"Islamic modernism"

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attempts to reconcile Islam with modernity. Womens rights and education. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, Qasim Amin, Taha Hussein.

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Qasim Amin

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beginning od womens feminist movement. Believed that the Islamic world fell behind due to lack of progress of Muslim women.

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Esposito thesis

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U.S. middle eastern foreign policy should not be one size fits all.

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the Muslim Brotherhood

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founded in 1928 by Hassan al-Banna, peaceful until 40's

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Hassan al-Banna

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founded the Muslim Brotherhood in 28', initially a modernist, believed in a need to maintain a strong Muslim identity, modern interpretation of Qu'ran, against westernization.

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Sayyid Qutb

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"hijra from the world of jahiliya", went to school in Colorado, hated the west and the u.s. in specific, kharijist (civilian political violence), tribal understanding of shura.

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Kharwarij

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In modern times, Muslim scholars and governments have called terrorist groups which emphasize the practice of Takfir and justify the killing of innocent people as the new Kharijites;

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Ibn Taymiyya

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believed that the ulama should formulate law, Qu'ranic interpretation, and state policy, to be handed down from ulema to heads of states.

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hajib

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the veil

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textualist

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letter of the law; order/structure

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Contextualist

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spirit of the law; emancipation vs. dicipline and submission

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Huda Shaarawi

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leader of womens movement in 20's and 30's, 1st women activist/feminist, founder of womens movement in Egypt, resented arranged marriage.

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Islamic feminism

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aims to eliminate female subjectivity in indigenous (Islamic) terms.

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Zeinab al-Ghazali

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worked with Huda was a prominent Egyptian Islamist and arguably the most famous woman Islamist internationally. She was the founder of the Muslim Women's Association, and was closely associated with the Muslim Brotherhood.

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Nabawiyya Musa

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Nabawiyya Musa is often recognized as one of the founding feminists of the 20th century in Egypt. She is often partnered with Huda Shaarawi and Malak Hifni Nasif as all three of these women gave lectures and put on other events to further education, health and reduce sexual exploitation among other things for women.

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Wafd party

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political party of late 20's onward, popular due to role in fighting for independence, secular

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"salon activism"

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Made th rioits of 1919 possible, female arm of political activism.

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riots of 1919

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riot of Muslim women in egypt over british occupation

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Personal Status Law

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family law - very central to Sharia

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talaq

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Divorce

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Khula'

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annulment, most important legacy of Islamic feminism.

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nushuz

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Acts of rebellion by a wife against her husband.

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Eastern Question

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What do with the Ottoman Empire

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Age of Imperialism

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ethnic based nationalism that justified colonialism,

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Sick man of Europe

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Europe's thoughts/moniker for the Ottoman Empire.

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Balance of Power

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Buffers vs. imperialism, Europe's conditions of foreign policy that allowed for no one nation to gain supremacy over the others.

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Eastern Crisis

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the Balkan Crises, Europe switches into a partition mode for Ottoman Empire. Results in the loss of over half of Rumelia

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Constitution of 1876

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Ottoman: Abd al-Hamid. Produced under external and internal pressure from Europe and internal reformers.

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Ottoman Public Debt Administration

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made up of European bankers, required an annual budget binding on the Sultan.

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Hamidian depotism

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did not want to liberalize the state, described as paranoid tyrant. Spy network, censorship, corruption

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Hijaz Railway

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made pilgrimage to mecca much quicker and safer, instituted regional borders, passports. Began under Abdul Hamid II

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'Abd al-Hamid II

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helped in the genesis of the "Arab Awakening"

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Arab Awakening.

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Began in Egypt intellectual movements, brought to life in Arabia.

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Young Turks

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were a coalition of various groups favoring reformation of the administration of the Ottoman Empire. The movement was against the monarchy of Ottoman Sultan and favored a re-installation of the shortlived constitution. They established the second constitutional era in 1908 with what would become known as the Young Turk Revolution. The term Young Turks referred to the members of the Ottoman society who were progressive, modernist and opposed to the status quo. The movement built a rich tradition of dissent that shaped the intellectual, political and artistic life of the late Ottoman period generally transcendent the decline and dissolution periods. Many Young Turks were not only active in the political arena, but were also artists, administrators, scientists, etc.

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The Committee of Progress and Union

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The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) began as a secret society established as the "Committee of Ottoman Union" It became a political organization during the period of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The CUP came to power between 1908 and 1918.

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Mustafa Kemal Ataturk

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was a Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, and founder of the Republic of Turkey as well as its first President. Atatürk became known as an extremely capable military officer by being the only undefeated Ottoman commander during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence. Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His successful military campaigns led to the liberation of the country and to the establishment of Turkey. During his presidency, Atatürk embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms. An admirer of the Age of Enlightenment, he sought to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, democratic, and secular nation-state. The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism

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Revolution of 1908

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The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 reversed the suspension of the Ottoman parliament by Sultan Abdul Hamid II, marking the onset of the Second Constitutional Era. A landmark in the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the Revolution arose from an unlikely union of reform-minded pluralists, Turkish nationalists, Western-oriented secularists, and indeed anyone who accorded the Sultan political blame for the harried state of the Empire. The Revolution restored the parliament, which had been suspended by the Sultan in 1878. However, the process of supplanting the monarchic institutions with constitutional institutions and electoral policies was neither as simple nor as bloodless as the regime change itself, and the periphery of the Empire continued to splinter under the pressures of local revolutions

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Ottomanism

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a concept which developed prior to the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. Its proponents believed that it could solve the social issues that the empire was facing. Ottomanism was highly affected by thinkers such as Montesquieu and Rousseau and the French Revolution. It promoted the equality among the millets. The idea originated amongst the Young Ottomans. Put simply, Ottomanism stated that all subjects were equal before the law. The essence of the millet system was not dismantled, but secular organizations and policies were applied. Primary education, conscription, head tax and military service were to be applied to non-Muslims and Muslims alike.

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Young Arabs

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al-Fatat or the Young Arab Society was founded in 1911 by Arab nationalists. It was a secret Arab nationalist organization under the Ottoman Empire. Its aims were to gain independence and unity for various Arab nations then under the Ottoman rule. This organizations parallel in activism were the Young Turks, who had a similar agenda that pertained to Turkish nationalism

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Tanzimat

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meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. The Tanzimat reform era was characterized by various attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire, to secure its territorial integrity against nationalist movements and aggressive powers. The reforms encouraged Ottomanism among the diverse ethnic groups of the Empire, attempting to stem the tide of nationalist movements within the Ottoman Empire. The reforms attempted to integrate non-Muslims and non-Turks more thoroughly into Ottoman society by enhancing their civil liberties and granting them equality throughout the Empire.

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Khatti-i Sherif of Gulkhane

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The Hatt-i Sharif (Hatt-ı Şerif) of Gülhane (Noble Edict of the Rose Chamber) was an 1839 proclamation by Ottoman Sultan Abdülmecid I that launched the Tanzimat period of reforms and reorganization. The proclamation was issued at the behest of reformist Grand Vizier Mustafa Reshid Pasha. It promised reforms such as the abolition of tax farming, reform of conscription, and greater equality of religion. The goal of the decree was to help modernize the empire militarily and socially so that it could compete with the Great Powers of Europe. It also was hoped the reforms would win over the disaffected parts of the empire, especially in the Ottoman controlled parts of Europe, which were largely Christian.

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Crimean War

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The Crimean War (October 1853 – February 1856) was fought between the Russian Empire on one side and an alliance of the British Empire, France, the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia on the other. The war was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. Most of the conflict took place on the Crimean Peninsula, but there were smaller campaigns in western Turkey, the Baltic Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the White Sea.

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Khedives

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The term Khedive (Turkish: Hıdiv) is a title largely equivalent to the English word viceroy. It was first used, without official recognition, by Muhammad Ali Pasha (Turkish: Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Paşa), the Ottoman Wali of Egypt and Sudan. The initially self-declared title was officially recognized also by the Ottoman government in 1867 and subsequently used by Ismail Pasha and his dynastic successors until 1914. The history of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali Pasha dynasty was a period of rapid reform and modernization that led to Egypt becoming one of the most developed states outside of Europe. It also led to massive government expenditures, that ended up bankrupting Egypt and eventually led to it falling under control of the United Kingdom.

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Muhammad Ali

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Muhammad Ali Pasha was born 4 March in 1769 in Kavala in the Ottoman territory of Macedonia (now in Greece), and died at Alexandria August 2, 1849, was Wāli of Egypt and Sudan, and is regarded as the "founder of modern Egypt". Though not a modern nationalist, he instituted dramatic reforms in the military, economic, and cultural spheres. The dynasty he established would rule Egypt until the Egyptian Revolution of 1952.

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Ibrahim Pasha

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Ibrahim Pasha a 19th century general of Egypt. He is better known as the son of Muhammad Ali of Egypt. Ibrahim served as Regent for his father from July to November 10, 1848.

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Suez Canal

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Most important of Egyptian reform accomplishments, built with help of French, originally co-owned, eventually sold off shares to Brits, used proceeds in the transformation of Cairo into a modern city along European lines.

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Armistice of Mudros

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The Armistice of Moudros ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I. The Ottomans surrendered their remaining garrisons outside Anatolia, granted the Allies the right to occupy forts controlling the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus; and the right to occupy "in case of disorder" any territory in case of a threat to security. The Ottoman army was demobilized, and ports, railways, and other strategic points were made available for use by the Allies. In the Caucasus, Turkey had to retreat to within its pre-war borders.

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Entente

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Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Arabs: The Western Powers

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Central Powers

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Germany, Austria, Bulgarians, Ottomans.

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Eastern Front

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Advance into Palestine - Arab revolt, Mesopotamian campaign, Ottomans Russia campaign, Dardanelles campaign.

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Dardanelles campaign

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The Gallipoli Campaign took place at Gallipoli peninsula in Turkey from 25 April 1915 to 9 January 1916, during the First World War. A joint British Empire and French operation was mounted to capture the Ottoman capital of Istanbul, and secure a sea route to Russia. The attempt failed, with heavy casualties on both sides. In Australia and New Zealand, the campaign was the first major battle undertaken by a joint military formation, the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), and is often considered to mark the birth of national consciousness in both of these countries. Anzac Day (25 April) remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in Australia and New Zealand, surpassing Armistice Day/Remembrance Day.

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Arab Bureau

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The Arab Bureau was a section of the Cairo Intelligence Department during the First World War. It was constituted on the initiative of Mark Sykes and it was meant to make British decision making with regard to Arab affairs more unified and effective. Sykes and his friend Gilbert Clayton wanted British Egypt to control the Arab world. They were opposed in their aims by the Foreign Office and Horatio Kitchener and by the Government of India (Charles Hardinge and Austen Chamberlain) who did not want to relinquish their claims of control.

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Sykes-Picot Agreement

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The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 was a secret agreement between the governments of the UK and France, with the assent of Imperial Russia, defining their respective spheres of influence and control in Western Asia after the expected downfall of the Ottoman Empire during World War I. It was largely a trade agreement with a large area set aside for indirect control through an Arab state or a confederation of Arab states. The agreement was concluded on 16 May 1916. It did not contemplate the assignment of any League of Nations mandates, since the League and its mandates were developed during the post-war period. The terms were negotiated by the French diplomat François Georges-Picot and Briton Sir Mark Sykes.

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Husayn-McMahon Correspondence

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The McMahon–Hussein Correspondence was a protracted exchange of letters (July 14, 1915 to January 30, 1916) during World War I, between the Sharif of Mecca, Husayn bin Ali, and Sir Henry McMahon, British High Commissioner in Egypt, concerning the future political status of the lands under the Ottoman Empire. The Arab side was already looking toward a large revolt (which did not eventuate) against the Ottoman Empire and the British encouraged the Arabs to revolt and thus hamper the Ottoman Empire, which had become a German ally in the War after November 1914.

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T.E. Lawrence

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Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Edward Lawrence (16 August 1888 – 19 May 1935), known professionally as T. E. Lawrence, was a British military officer renowned especially for his liaison role during the Arab Revolt of 1916–18. His vivid writings, along with the extraordinary breadth and variety of his activities and associations, have made him the object of fascination throughout the world as Lawrence of Arabia, a title popularised by the 1962 film Lawrence of Arabia based on his life.

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the Mandates

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The U.N. approved partition of the Middle East into European spheres of influence.