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226 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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[p]
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Voiceless Bilabial Stop
Pit, tip, spit, hiccough, appear |
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[b]
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Voiced Bilabial Stop
ball, globe, amble, brick, bubble |
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[t]
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Voiceless Alveolar Stop
tag, pat, stick, pterodactyl, stuffed |
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[d]
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Voiced Alveolar Stop
dip, card, drop, loved, batted |
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[k]
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voiceless velar stop
kit, scoot, character, critique, exceed |
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[g]
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voiced velar stop
guard, bag, finger, designate, Pittsburgh |
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[ʔ]
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Voiceless glottal stop
uh-oh, haTrack, baTman |
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[f]
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voiceless labiodental fricative
foot, laugh, philosophy, coffee, carafe |
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[v]
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voiced labiodenal fricative
vest, dove, gravel, anvil, average |
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[θ]
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voiceless interdental fricative
through, wrath, thistle, ether, teethe |
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[ð]
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voiced interdental fricative
the, their, mother, either, teethe |
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[s]
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voiceless alveolar fricative
soap, psychology, packs, descent, peace, exceed |
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[z]
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voiced alveolar fricative
zip, roads, kisses, Xerox, design |
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[∫]
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voiceless post-alveolar fricative
shy, mission, nation, glacial, sure |
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[ʒ]
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voiced post-alveolar fricative
measure, vision, azure, casualty, decision |
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[h]
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voiceless glottal fricative
who, hat, rehash, hole, whole |
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[tʃ]
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Voiceless post-alveolar affricate
choke, match, feature, righteous, constituemts |
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[d͡ʒ]
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voiced post-alveolar affricate
judge, george, jell-O, region, residual |
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[m]
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voiced bilabial nasal
moose, lamb, smack, amnesty, ample |
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[n]
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voiced alveolar nasal
nap, design, snow, mnemonic |
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[l]
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voiced alveolar lateral approximate
leaf feel, lloyd, mild, appluad |
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[ɹ]
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Voiced alveolar aproximate
reef, fear, harris, prune, carp |
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[w]
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voiced bilabial glide
with, swim, mowing, queen, twilight |
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[j]
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voiced palatal glide
you, beautiful, feud, use, yell |
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[i]
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High front tense
beat, we, believe, people, money, dean |
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[I]
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High front lax
but, consist, injury, malignant, gym, business |
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[u]
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High back tense
boot, who, sewer, duty, through, dune |
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[ʊ]
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High back lax
put, foot, butcher, boogie-woogie, coukd |
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[ɛ]
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Mid front
bet, reception, says, guest, bend |
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[ə]
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mid central
among, asia, enough, famous, harmoney |
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[æ]
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Low front
bat, laugh, anger, bang, comrade. rally. hand |
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[o]
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mid back
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[ɑ]
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low back
pot, father, sergeant, honor, hospital, bomb |
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[ŋ]
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voiced, velar, nasal
lung, think, finger, singer, ankel |
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Prescriptive
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Tell how to use a language
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Descriptive
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Tell how a language is used by people
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Saausure's Principle of Arbitrariness
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Languages do not have the same words for the same signified
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Signified
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object being given a word to
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Signifier
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the word given to describe the sign
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Onomatopoeia
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Not arbitrary because trying to create a word that sounds like a sound (similar between languages)
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Phone
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smallest sound segment – series make up words and sentences
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IPA
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International Phonetic Alphabet – symbols that represent the various phones - the master tome
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Articulation
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movement of vocal apparatus – can mumble and still be understood
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orthography
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The study of written text (spelling) and how it is used to convey meanings
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Consonants
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class of phones - sound smade by complete or partial closure of the vocal tract
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place of articulation
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- what areas of the mouth/throat are being used to make the phone
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manner of articulation
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by what method the phone is made (ex. Stop, nasal, fricative)
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Voicing
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vibrating of the vocal fold occurs when producing the sound
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velar
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back of the tongue to the velar soft pallet
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stops
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full closure of the mouth with release of pressure
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nasal
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full closure but velar port allows air through the nasal
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fricatives
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production of turbulent air
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affricates
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begins with a stop and immediately switch to a fricative
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approximates
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block some of the flow of air but allow some to pass through (lateral = L sound, retroflex = R sound)
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glides
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change in oral cavity shape during the phone (makes the W sound)
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alveolar tap/flap
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quick tap to the alveolar area of the mouth with the tongue to make a 'd' like sound in place of 'tt' such as in butter
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lateral approximate
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air passes to the side of the tongue – not a full stop (L sound)
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aspiration
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Voiceless stops at beginning of sentence or syllable – strong burst of air
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vowels
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phones pronounced with an open vocal tract (no buildup of pressure anywhere above the glottis)
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dipthongs
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two vowels in sequence
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natural classes
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A subject that has all subsets listed (if you are defining voiceless stops and natural class is one that lists all possible voiceless stops)
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suprasegmental features
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a speech feature not of the main descriptors such as tone, intonation, and stress
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Intonation
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change in pitch over the entire entire sentence, used in English to distinguish question from statement.
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Tone
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Raising and/or falling of pitch over the course of a single word of phone; in some languages can change the meaning of the word
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Stress
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Placing emphasis on a syllable or phone to change the meaning of the word (cOntrats vs contrAst)
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phonetic transcription
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converting spoken words/sentences into IPA characters
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Broad Transcription
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Not using extra descriptors (vowel length, tone etc) in the IPA transcription
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Narrow Transcription
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Being specific with the IPA translation (include vowel length, aspirations, emphasis and/or tone).
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phonemes
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a groups of sounds recognized as having the same meanings
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allophones
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phone w/in a phoneme, all phones full under this category
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Contrastive distribution
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Minimal Pair that leads to a different meaning of the word when comparing phonemes
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Minimal pairs
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two words that differ in only one phone (the phones have the same environments)
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environments
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what surrounds the phone in question
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free variation
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When the minimal pair does not lead to a difference in meaning
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complementary distribution
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compared Phone not in the same place at the same time
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phonological rule
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rule of what environment a phone is allowed to turn up in
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syllable
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set of sounds made up of onset and a rime with a nucleus and coda
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onset
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The consonants that come before the vowel in a syllable (optional)
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nucleus
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The vowel of a syllable – gives the syllable its strength
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coda
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The consonants that come at the end of the syllable (optional)
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sonorants
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A phone that can be sung: is voiced and has length
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consonant cluster
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a group of consonants that have no vowel in the center; can be the onset or the coda of a syllable
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assimilation
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one feature of a phone is copied over to an adjacent phone
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dissimilation
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when two phones become less similar to adjacent phones (use -Iz after a sibilant for plural so can tell the difference in meaning)
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Vowel Reduction
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when a vowel is not fully articulated ; results in a schwa
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metathesis
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the switching of two phones in sequence (nuclear-> nucular)
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deletion
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take out a phone from a word (often becomes offen when speaking)
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flapping
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if you have an alveolar stop in between vowels, you flop the phone (butter becomes buder - quick tap similar to a 'd')
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morphemes
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word that has meaning
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allomorphs
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subset of morpheme (has meaning/adds meaning)
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derivational morphology
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anytime you have two morphemes that when put together change the form of speech (ex. verb to noun)
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inflectional morphology
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changes tense (past. Present, singular, plural)
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bound morphemes
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morphemes that alone do not have meaning (ex. –ize vs politicize)
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free morphemes
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cannot be split up, has meaning on its own
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content morphemes
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meaning heavy, new types get made all the time (ex. Blog)
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Functional Morphemes
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relationship words; hard to define; complex meaning but fleeting; don’t make new ones (ex. For, in, of, -s)
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open class
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can add new words to the class (content morphemes)
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closed class
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cannot add new words tot he class (functional morphemes)
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root
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any morpheme that can be pulled off and have some kind of meaning (all free morphemes can be roots)
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stem
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anytime you have more than one morpheme together (sleepless and sleeplessness but not sleep)
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affixation
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attaching a bound morpheme to some part of another word- all affixes are bound
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suffixation
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Morpheme attached at end of root/stem
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prefixation
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Morpheme attached to beginning of root stem
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infixation
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morpheme inside the root/stem (ex. Friggin in califrigginfornia)
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interfixation
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morpheme within the root/stem but are interlocked (ex. Ktb -->kataba)
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circumfixation
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where root is put inside the affix (ex. Ge___t --> geliebt)
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Compounding
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two free morphemes being fixed together (ex. Notebook)
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reduplication
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Rhym being duplicated to show plurality (ex. Gabuji = old person; gababuji = old people)
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null morpheme
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a morpheme where no change to the root occurs to indicate it (‘he’ in some languages do not require any additions to the word; whereas other pov's do fix)
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analytic language
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whole sentence is made up of free morphemes; don’t compound; don’t duplicate; don’t mark tense on verb just know by context
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synthetic language
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any language not analytic; languages that do affix things (2 types)
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agglutinating language
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fixed words only have a single meaning (no two meanings to words or affixes) (1:1 word to meaning ratio)
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fusional language
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languages that can affix things and have words that have more than one meanings
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competance
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knowing language rewrite rules - theoretically depicting any possible sentence form the language can make
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performance
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using rules to form actual systems - has restrictions not shown in the formal rules
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rewrite rules
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A --> B; B --> CD; rules for how a sentence in a language can be made (S --> NP VP)
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recursion
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rules that apply to their own output -- allow for infinite loops ( he said that she said that they said that he said... etc)
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syntactic category
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parts of speech
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phrase structure tree
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sentence tree that shows how a sentence rules are attached
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structural ambiguity
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sentences can be treed more than one way and change the meaning depending on how they are tied
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sister nodes
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two items that branch off of the same node are sisters
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dominance
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an item at a node higher in the tree is dominant to the lower areas of the tree
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terminal nodes
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nodes that do not have any branches off of them
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heads
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the main part of the phrase (a noun in the NP; a verb in the VP)
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modifier
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any part that is not the head (the PP, Aux, NP, and CP of a VP)
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cooccurrance
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words that have to show up with other words (‘sally slept’ works but ‘sally loved’ does not)
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subject
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the NP daughter of the S
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objects
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any argument the is not the subject
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arguments
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a required element of the verb (subject must occur – objects if the verb requires them)
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adjuncts
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objects that can be removed from the sentence and the sentence still makes sense
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intransitive verb
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a verb that does not require any objects
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transitive verb
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a verb that requires one object
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ditransitive
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a verb that requires 2 objects
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agreement
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markers on the verb must match the argument (plurality)
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head marking
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marking (subject/object) on the verb
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dependency marking
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marking on the subj or obj in the sentence
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fixed word order
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where the word order tells you what is subj or obj such as in English (can change the meaning of the sentence by changing the word order)
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free word order
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where subj and obj are marked so that changing word order does not change sentence meaning
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syntactic scrambling
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when languages mark is such a way that allows wording to be moved and scrambled
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parsing
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when the structure/meaning of sentence is determined as the sentence is heard - does not wait until full sentence is known to be organizing the different parts of speech in head
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grammatical case
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subj obj marking - which is which - which parts of the speech word is
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grammatical gender
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marking that indicated the gender of a noun, can be 2 or many, allow for classing nouns so can recognize nouns faster
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Word Orders
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SVO SOV VSO VOS OSV OVS
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Commonality of Word Order
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SOV SVO
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Tendency of subject before Object
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SOV SVO VSO are much more common than VOS OVS OSV
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Greenbergian Word Order
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VO languages have preposition
OV Languages have post positions VO languages have Noun-Rel OV Languages have Rel-Noun |
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Case Marking tendency of OV
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OV tends to have this feature
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Mother Node Constructing Category
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A word that will project the node they are a part of (the indicates a NP in the tree)
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Language Documantation
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The film, creating your own writing system, recording so language does not disappear completely.
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Grimm's Law
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Symantic Changes suggest that there was a common parent for both languages.
Pater becomes Father from Latin to germanic |
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Language Family (and Families)
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A group of languages related to a common parent
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Old English Influence from Norman French
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Norman French Injected words into english
Beef/Cow; Pig/Pork; Chicken/Poultry; Lamb, Mutton |
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Mutual Comprehensibility
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Languages/Dialects close enough that they can be understood by each other
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Old English influence from Scandinavian
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Shirt and Skirt come from the same root with slight differences btwn the mutually comprehensible old English and Scandinavian.
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Proto-Indo-European
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Parent language of all indo-european languages
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Divergence
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language change overtime; evolution and breaking away from sister and parent languages
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Linguistic Evolution
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Language change over time a becomes different from sister and parent languages
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Common Parent
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The dominant of two sister languages
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Great Vowel Shift
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Vowels tended to move a notch in the chart though spelling stayed the same. Those at the top of the chart became dipthings
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Origin of English Spelling
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The great vowel shift caused a change in sound but no spelling change was made to match
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Synonyms
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words with the same meanings
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Antonyms
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Words that have opposite or different meanings
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Complementary Antonym
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clear distinction, if you're not one you're the other -- clear cut
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Gradable Antonym
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Different meanings however the dividing line for definitions not so clear cut
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Relational Antonyms
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Different meanings in terms of verbs -- if you do one the other does the opposite (Buyer and seller; lend and borrow)
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Sense
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The entity/meaning of a word -- defined by what it recalls
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References
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The entities that the sense recall
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Procedural Symantics/ Verbs as Functions
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Hits {[James ---> {Mary, Sue, Howard}]
[Lucy ---> {Mary, Cindy}]} |
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Sentential Reference
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Sentances return truth values (true or false) based on procedural symantics
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Parsing
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Incremental tree building for sentences as they are being heard
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Segmentation
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Method of splitting words up within a string of spoken words so that they can be parsed
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'Speech Chain'
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Brain -> Musculature -> Ear -> Brain
Allows for self correction |
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Garden Path Sentances
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'The horse ran path the barn fell' A sentence that initially causes the person hearing it to parse wrong and have to go back and reparse.
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Structural Ambiguity
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One sentence have two meanings -- s test pf parsing mechanisms -- reader will return back to beginning on sentence while reading.
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Lexicon
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Contains all the word meanings -- staggering amount of info stored
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Lexical Access
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The time it takes to access the lexicon -- words with more complex meanings do not take longer to find
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Priming
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Using a word similar to the target word to shorten the access time it takes for that target word
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'Cohort' model
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Parsing segment -- as the sound is heard, the brain makes a list of possible words that it ca be-- decreases the number of possibilities as new sounds are heard
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Hemispheres
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Two sides to the brain
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Lobes
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Each individual half of the brain
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Corpus Callosum
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Fibers that connect the two lobes of the brain
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Arcuate Fasciculus
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The name of the fibers connecting brocca's and wernike's areas
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Cortex
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The outer 1/4th inch of the brain where higher function occures
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Gyri
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The portions of the brain that stick out (the outer edge of the noodles)
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Fissures
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The indents between the gyri (the dips and divets in the brain cortex)
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Broca's Area
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Located towards the front of the brain and is responsible for the syntax (speaking) portion of language
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Wernike's Area
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Towards the back of the brain which is responsible for the symantics (meaning) portion of language
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Broca's Aphasia
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Characterized by choppy telegraphic speech -- no comprehension problems but missing functional morphemes -- syntax deficient
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Wernike's Aphagia
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Characterized by fluid nonsense speech. Comprehension deficits -- associated with symantics
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Conduction Aphasia
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Problem in the Arcuate Fasciculus which can have a variety of effects (such as Tonam in the film). Maybe be able to understand or may not.
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Alexia
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An inability to read caused by damage to the angular gyrus
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Agraphia
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Inability to write caused by damage to the angular gyrus
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Angular Gyrus
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converts visual and auditory field into information the brain can understand as language -- turn visual ques into sound
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ERP
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Electrodes placed on the head to measure electrical potentials within the brain with great temporal accuracy (time) but terrible spacial accuracy (where in the brain the potential is)
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fMRI
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Measures oxygen blood flow in the brain giving great spacial resolution but scanning is slow making temporal resolution terrible
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TMS
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can selectively impair parts the the brain -- can temporarily cause aphasias to study without doing lasting damage
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N400 / P600, ELAN
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The different potentials that occur with specific stimuli in the ERP test.
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McGurk Effect
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One sound is said, but if you change the image to a different sound, will hear the same sound as a different one (fa instead of ba) -- the brain uses all available stimuli to process language
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Language Varieties
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Any coherent language form -- categories of languages. -- California English -- English -- American English
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Mutual Intelligibility
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When variations in a language are similar enough to each other that speakers from each can understand each other.
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Dialects
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Varieties of a language that are mutually Intelligible
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Dialect Continuum
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There is no set boarders to dialects they gradually change as they become more different
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Political Factors in Language/dialect distinction
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Croatia and Serbia consider their languages different for political reasons even technically they are the same -- Arabic dialects are considered all part of the Arabic language even though many of them are separate languages from each other
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Accent
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Most obvious difference between dialects marked by difference in phones pronunciations -- a difference that can be attuned to -- longer you listen the easier it is ti understand
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Speech Community
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Any group of that share a language variety -- even language feature within a dialect
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Style/ Register
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Ways to change your speech to match the expectations of who you're speaking to -- try to sound more intelligent in a job interview than with your friends
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Jargon
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special vocab that marks you as part of an in-group
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Slang
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Special vocab words used to mark one as within a certain group -- the in-group
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Common Slang
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Slang that everyone uses and does not denote you as one specific group
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In-group Slang
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Slang that is only used with on particular group and use marks you as part as the in-group
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Prestige Dialects
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The belief that certain dialects are better than others -- judgement of character based on how someone talks
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Standard American English
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The radio voice -- no real standard american english
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Innateness Hypothesis
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The idea that the child's mind is hardwired to learn language -- an innate ability to learn it
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Poverty of the stimulus
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The idea that children are not getting enough input to actually learn language as they do -- supports the innateness hypothesis
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Universal Grammer
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The idea that there are some facets on language found in every language that are pre-programmed into the brain allowing children shortcuts to learning language -- trying to explain how innateness hypothesis is possible
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Language Learnability
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The alternative hypothesis for the way children learn language -- they learn it the same way they learn any other complex process -- language is just learnable
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Motherese
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Cutesy language adults use to babies -- bad input and yet children dont start speaking in this manner -- part of the poverty of the stimulus
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Stages of Language Aquisition
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1.Babbling - trying our vocal apparatus (6m)
2. First Words - single words in isolation (1y) 3. Telegraphic Speech - sentences without functional morphemes (1.5y) 4. Functional Morphemes - begin using functional morphemes (2y) 5. Basic Mastery (4y) 6. Continued Learning stage |
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Rate of Vocab Growth
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Amount of vocab doubles every 6 months -- very rapid
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Fronting
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replace a sound with a sound more forward in the mouth ([k] spoken as [t])
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Stopping
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Turning a fricative into a stop (their becomes der)
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Perseverence
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Having a sound early in the word being repeated again later in the word
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Anticipation
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A sound from later in the word being said earlier -- usually occurs with difficult phones that children might be concentrating on hard causing them to say it early
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Underextenstion
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A term that should apply to an entire group of entities on applies to one (Dog only refers to Fido.. not to other peoples dogs)
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Overextension
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Applying a word to a larger group than it should be applied to (Fido gets applied to all dogs)
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Overgeneralization
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Applying learned rules to previously learned exceptions (End up with words such as Goed even though the child already new went -- or wented)
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