Io's

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International Regime:

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concentrates on other types of interactions that occur in conjunction with or independent of IGOs. It is defined as “sets of implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules and decision making procedures around which actors’ expectations converge in a given issue” (Krasner 1983, 2). Regime analysis extends analysis to include other actors beyond states and IGOs

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League of Nations

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It was the first global IGO (1919-1939). It had universal membership and was created after World War I. It was organized around 3 bodies: the Council, the Assembly, and the Secretariat. The League of Nations was considered a failed experiment because it was based on 3 important principles; First, it embraced the idea of collective security where international security is directly tied to the security of member states. Second, the League established as a norm the peaceful settlement of disputes through such nonviolent measures as mediation, negotiation, arbitration and adjudication. Third, the league was founded to foster international cooperation in the economic and social realms.

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The United Nations:

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It was created in 1945 following World War II. It was designed to be the center of multilateral diplomacy in postwar world politics. Its purpose was to maintain peace and security; to develop friendly relations among nations; to address economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems; and to promote respect for universal human rights.

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The 5 Principles Of The United Nations

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(1) Sovereign equality: Each state, at least in legal theory, retains the right to determine its own internal and external affairs.
(2) UN members voluntarily accept responsibility to carry out certain international obligations upon joining the UN, one of which is to abide by Security Council decisions.
(3) UN is the peaceful settlement of disputes.
(4) Member states agree not to threaten or use force in their international relations.
(5) UN is enjoined from intervening in the domestic jurisdiction of member states

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UN Challenges

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(1) UN suffers from resource difficulties. The United States, which is the UN’s largest contributor, is also its largest debtor.
(2) UN has had enormous difficulties in protecting its personnel. Since the 1990s, UN workers have been assaulted, kidnapped, and killed in record numbers in hot spots such as Lebanon, Mozambique, and Afghanistan. Given the crisis of resources and the reluctance of member states to commit militarily, UN personnel remain at risk while attempting to deliver humanitarian and development assistance.
(3) UN is suffering from a lack of state leadership. The 911 attack has complicated the political landscape and have raised questions about the appropriate role of the UN in the “war on terrorism”

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The General Assembly

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(1) The General Assembly may deliberate and consider any issue or questions that may rise under the charter (Chapter IV).
(2) It is responsible for initiating studies and making recommendations for promoting political cooperation and the progressive development of international law.
(3) It is responsible for promoting international cooperation in the economic, social, cultural, education, and health care fields.
(4) It is charged with drafting and approving the UN budget.
(5) It oversees the UN bureaucracy.

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Role of Security Council:

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Maintains international peace and security which involves identifying threats to international peace and security, crafting an appropriate international response, building international consensus, and carrying out collective security actions. The permanent members include the 5 great power victors of World War II, while 10 elected members are selected from the General Assembly

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Role of ICJ:

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It is the principal organ of the UN. The ICJ adjudicates disputes arising under the charter (Chapter XIV) and international law. It also provides advisory opinions on legal questions for the Security Council or the General Assembly, upon request.

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Optional Clause

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allows parties to decide whether they want to give the Court blanket jurisdiction over their current and future international legal disputes

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The Economic And Social Council:

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The ECOSOC was established under the UN Charter (Chapter X) to promote economic and social cooperation among member states. It attends to issues of economic development, human rights, and social welfare.
(1) The ECOSOC initiates studies and reports with respect to international economic, social, cultural, educational, and health.
(2) The ECOSOC may make recommendations for promoting and protecting human rights.
(3) The ECOSOC may prepare draft conventions relating to economic and social issues.
The ECOSOC is a collaborative body with authority to create commissions to promote human rights and economic and social cooperation.

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The Trustee Council:

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It was created to oversee the transition of colonies into self-governing territories. The UN member states are the members of the Trustee Council that administer trust territories. These members take an oath to respect the cultures of the people involved and to respect their political, economic, and social development. The Trusteeship Council’s role in this process has been to debate and deliberate different strategies for decolonization, as well as to monitor the effects of the process on trust populations.

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The Secretariat

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It serves as the UN bureaucracy. The Secretary-General is the chief diplomat, whose task is to represent the UN to member states. The bureaucratic agencies of the Secretariat are created by the General Assembly; however, both the ECOSOC and the Trusteeship Council are explicitly assigned their own staffs. The United States has demanded that the Un change the way it does business, and the scandals involving corruption relating to the “Oil For Food” program and the procurement office accentuated the need for them.

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European Union:

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It is comprehensive, multipurpose regional organization that has been under reconstruction since the end of WW II. The original goals the EU revolve around the economic and political integration of 15 European states- France, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Denmark, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Ireland, Austria, Sweden, Finland. In 2004 10 new members joined the EU. These states, which are from Eastern and Central Europe, are Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Slovenia, and Cyprus. In 2007, both Bulgaria and Romania joined the EU, making a grand total of 27 members.

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The Organization of Islamic Conference:

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It was created in 1969 by 24 Islamic states to safeguard the well-being of their peoples and of Muslims in general. The OIC seeks to strengthen Islamic solidarity; consolidate cooperation among member states in the economic, social, cultural, and scientific fields; safe guard Holy Places; support the struggle of the Palestinian people; and eliminate racial discrimination and all forms of colonialism. The OIC is structured among 4 major components; Conference of the Kings, Heads of State, Government, and Conference of Foreign Ministers.

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African Union:

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AU is a 53 member regional organization created in 2002 to replace the OAU. AU is serviced by organs that deal with peace and security (The Peace and Security Council); quasi-legislative functions (The Pan-African Parliament); bureaucratic administration/secretariat (The African Commission); legal matters (the African Court of Justice), and economic and social matters (The Economic, Social and Cultural Council). The intent behind the AU was to correct the shortcomings of the OAU, which suffered from lack of resources and little political unity and often derided as a “dictators club.” African states wished the Au to approximate the relative success of the EU in promoting stability and economic growth.

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ASEAN:

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It was formed in 1967 and it’s currently a 10 member body that is committed to promoting international peace and stability among members and fostering economic integration. In 2007, ASEAN member states held a widely anticipated summit meeting for the purpose of furthering the institutionalization of the organization. The ASEAN was unable to agree as to whether to put conditions on members for joining, such as improved human rights protection or democratization.

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3 Roles of NGOs

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1) Information-related activities: Many NGOs are actively engaged in gathering information, as they have people on the ground who are directly involved with an issue or a problem. NGOs share information with states, IGOs, MNCs, and each other. They provide expert analysis by employing highly qualified individuals who are widely recognized experts in their respective fields.
(2) Carrying out the policies of states and IGOs: Implementing policy is largely the domain of social-welfare NGOs, which are, in effect, “subcontractors.” Working in conjunction with states and IGOs, many social-welfare NGOs serve as vehicles for delivering immediate humanitarian assistance to persons displaced by natural disaster, civil disorder, violent conflict, or war. In responding to crises and emergencies, these NGOs work on a continuous basis with populations mired in poverty and afflicted by disease and starvation.
(3) Private interaction: NGOs are involved in a variety of private international transactions that brings together groups and individuals. This includes student and faculty exchanges and study-abroad program. NGOs often host conferences that facilitate the exchange of ideas by holding joint conferences sponsored by IGOs.

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MNC:

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They are private, for-profit organizations that have commercial operations and subsidiaries in 2 or more countries. The origins of the first MNC are difficult to pinpoint in part because of the confusing attending definition. One of the earliest MNCs was the East India Company which was founded in the late 1700s

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REALISM

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Often referred to as power politics or realpolitik, realism’s central focus is the acquisition, maintenance, and exercise of power by states.

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Hard power:

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Tangible military capabilities like tanks, planes, troops, and missiles.

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Thomas Hobbes:

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A British philosopher contributed to realist theory through his conception of the nature and the condition of man. He argued that one way to overcome the unsavoriness of human instincts and escape the state of nature is to vest power and authority in a leviathan- an absolute state, particularly a sovereign or king- that can enforce human agreements and protect and protects citizens from each other. This so-called leviathan uses power to control the baser human instincts, allowing citizens to live civilly in a social environment relatively free of violence.

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Carl von Clausewitz:

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A Prussian general, who fought in the Napoleon Wars, stresses the importance of military power for achieving certain political aims. Military power can be an appropriate and useful tool of states to accomplish their goals, especially when political pressure and negotiation prove ineffective. He also made emphasis on the pope by saying, How many divisions does the pope have?. Realists are noted for their emphasis on military power as the final arbiter of disputes.

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Alexander Hamilton:

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His view on realism is considered an intellectual precursor to economic nationalism or neomercantilism in its advocate of economic self-sufficiency. He asserted that the U.S government should actively promote a highly diversified economy based on industrial production. He advocates a central role for the government in the development and protection of key national industries and the management of the economy.

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4 Organizing Assumptions of Realism

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(1) The state is the most important actor in international relations. Since the Treaty of Westaphalia (1648), international relations have been based on political units called states.
Realists are quick to point out that while sovereignty and autonomy may be considered rights in legal theory, in practice that “final say” within autonomy stems from capability.
(2) The state is a unitary and rational actor. This is a simplifying assumption, but it is analytically helpful for understanding international relations. Realists recognize that states are not, literally, unitary; they composed of individuals, groups, and even diverse governmental actors such as legislature and bureaucracy.
(3) International relations are essentially conflictual. Traditional realists see international relations as inherently conflictual because they are pessimistic in their assessment of human nature. Traditional realists, such as Hans Morgenthau and E.E Carr are largely Hobbesian.
Structural realists: Point to structural or systemic, attributes which contribute to international conflict and condition the behavior of states. The international system, according to structural realists, is characterized by anarchy and the balance of power- both of which shape state actions.
(4) Security and geostrategic issues, or high politics, dominate the international agenda. Other international issues, including economics, the environment, human rights, and poverty, occupy the realm of low politics

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Neorealists:

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Modify the traditional realist position by ascribing greater importance to economic issues and using economic, rational choice theory to make realism more scientific. They emphasize economic issues because they relate to national power and security.

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Neomercantilists:

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See participation in a highly interdependent world economy as necessary for attaining and maintaining great power status. However, interdependence, of necessity, limits the autonomy of the state because states are reliant on each other to varying degrees.

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Realism and the nature of IGOs:

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Realists argue that no hierarchy of authority exists in international relations. The international system is characterized by anarchy, where authority resides with each individual state. Anarchy doesn’t mean chaos. The international system, is, in fact, quite orderly because a power hierarchy does exist among states.

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Hegemonic stability theory:

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An international system is established for the same reasons that any political system is created; actors enter social relations and create social structures in order to advance particular sets of political, economic or other interests. Because the interests of some of the actors may conflict with those of other actors, the particular interests that are more favored by the social arrangements tend to reflect the relative powers of the actors.

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Game Theory:

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Is a variation of rational theory, originated with economists who were trying to explain choices among actors participating in a market. In simple terms, game theory seeks to explain economic and political choice by placing that choice in the context of a game- a game based on several governing rules or assumptions.
The first of game theory’s assumptions is that rational actors seek absolute gain when choosing among strategies.

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Zero-sum game:

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Many traditional realists and mercantilists see international relations and economics as a zero-sum game. In the zero-sum game, the interests of players are diametrically opposed, and one player’s gain is balanced by another player’s loss.

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Prisoner’ Dilemma:

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: It is the security dilemma that states face in an anarchical environment. It is a simple game, but it clearly shows why cooperation is difficult to achieve even in non-zero-sum situations

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Realism and the Role of IGOs

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: International organizations play one or two role in the realist world. One role is marginal one. IOs matter only at the fringes of world politics. They must foster cooperation in noncontroversial issue areas where states have common interest. However, they rarely constrain state behavior in issues where interests are diverse and opposed. In other words, IOs play little or no role in maintaining international peace and security. IOs are used by the hegemon and great powers to further their interests in the international system.
In spite of this rather pessimistic view, IOs do matter in the realist world.
(1) IOs provide the mechanism for great power collusion
(2) IOs are useful for making minor adjustments within the existing order, while the principles remains uncompromised.
(3) IOs can be agents of international socialization
(4) International institution are the ‘brass ring’ so to speak: the right to create and control them is precisely what the most powerful states have fought for in history’s most destructive wars.

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Criticisms of the Realism

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(1) Conceptual imprecision: Realism is based on the concept of power. After all, realism is power politics. But what is power? Very little consensus exists regarding a precise definition of power. Some see power as tangible, concrete military capabilities. Power is measured by the number of tanks, planes, and nuclear weapons a state has. Others see power as including potential. Japan and Germany are considered powerful, even though they do possess any significant military capability. Their economic and technological prowess indicates that they could put forth a formidable military.
(2) National interest: States seeking power in the international system to secure their national interests. States create IOs to further their national interests. States make political calculations based on their national interests.

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LIBERALISM:

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It challenges the pessimistic world view of realism by painting a more encouraging picture of the relations between societies. Liberals see international relations as a mixture of cooperation and conflict and argue that IOs can play a positive, constructive role in promoting international stability and global welfare.
Liberals believe the importance of military force in international relations as waned.
The spread of democracy has instilled values of compromise and the rule of law in governments
Societies are not as isolated from each other as they were in the past and societies are linked together by global markets and global production.
Liberals are much more optimistic about the prospects of international peace and they favor government policies that promote social welfare, health care, education, and civil rights
Liberalism in economics: refers to a belief in capitalism and its emphases on profit, private property, and a free, self regulating market.
Liberalism in political theory: refers to a belief in individual equality, individual liberty, participatory democracy and limited government.
Classical liberals: Former presidents Ronald Reagan and George W. Bush

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Hugo Grotius:

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He is the father of international law. He said states need to abide by their agreements in order to foster cooperative international relations which include economic and political transactions. Grotuis’s contribution to liberal international relations theory is his acknowledgement of the cooperation that occurs among states in an anarchical environment.

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John Locke’s:

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He believes that individuals and individual happiness are the keys to a productive society. Human beings are economic creatures driven by a quest to acquire and dispose of property. Locke emphasizes the importance and value of the individual to society and prescribes a very limited role for the government.

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Adam Smith:

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He compares the essence of human beings and the role of government in society. Human beings are economic creatures driven by a quest to acquire and dispose of property. He says society is born out of economic exchange between individuals. He believes that selfish behavior may result in social harmony. He sees economics as peace and he sees politics as war

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David Ricardo:

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He builds on d work of Adam Smith. He believes states benefit from international trade by exporting products in which they a comparative advantage. Having comparative advantage means that one state can produce a good or service at a lower cost than other states can. The theory of comparative advantage means that state should specialize in providing a good or service to the export market that they can produce at a lower cost than other states

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Immanuel Kant

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He incorporates Locke’s view of representative government and addresses the issue of individuals who are organized into territories. He insists that states should form a federation whereby they can peacefully resolve their disputes. Kant argues that the world republic should be composed of nation-states that are constitutional democracies.

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Jeremy Bentham:

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Is commonly associated with a group of thinkers called the “utilitarians”. The utilitarians see individuals as rational creatures who are capable of engaging in cost-benefit analysis and deciding for themselves what their wants and needs are. Bentham reinforces the liberal ideas that the institutions of limited, representative government and the market generate a great deal of wealth for a great many people.

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Contemporary Liberalism

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1) Both state and non state actors are important in international relations. Liberals focus on individuals, households, firms, interest groups, governments and IOs. Substate actors such as individuals and interest groups can have important effects on international affairs, both directly and indirectly.
(2) State is not necessarily a unitary and rational actor. What may be rational from the standpoint of a unitary state may not be rational from the stand point of a government official.
(3) The nature of international relations is a combination of conflict and cooperation. Adam Smith and David Ricardo believed that self interested economic behavior in a market leads to social harmony.
Complex interdependence: An International transaction where by states and other actors within societies are interconnected through trade and finance.
(4) A variety of issues can come to dominate the interactional agenda like economic, social and environment issues are also important to the government.