Invitation To Psychology Ch. 8

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behavior modification

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The application of conditioning techniques to teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior

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behaviorism

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A psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior

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classical conditioning

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The process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response; also called Pavlovian and respondent conditioning.

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cognitive map

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A mental representation of the environment

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conditioned response (CR)

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The classical conditioning term for a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; occurs after the conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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The classical conditioning term for an initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus

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conditioning

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A basic kind of learning that involves associations between environmental stimuli and the organism's responses

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continuous reinforcement

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A reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is always reinforced

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counterconditioning

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In classical conditioning, the process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an unwanted conditioned response.

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discriminative stimulus

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A stimulus that signals when a particular response is likely to be followed by a certain type of consequence

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extinction

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The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus; in operant conditioning, it occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer

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extrinsic reinforcers

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Reinforcers that are not inherently related to the activity being reinforced, such as money, prizes, and praise

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fixed-interval (FI) schedule
An intermittent schedule of

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reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response made after a fixed period of time has elapsed since the last reinforcer.

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fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

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An intermittent schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses.

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higher-order conditioning

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In classical conditioning, a procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus

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insight

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A form of problem solving that appears to involve the (often sudden) understanding of how elements of a situation are related or can be reorganized to achieve a solution

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instinctive drift

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The tendency of an organism to revert to an instinctive behavior over time; it can interfere with learning

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intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement

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A reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is sometimes but not always reinforced

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intrinsic reinforcers

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Reinforcers that are inherently related to the activity being reinforced, such as enjoyment of the task and the satisfaction of accomplishment

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latent learning

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A form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without obvious reinforcement

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learning

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A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavioral potential) due to experience

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negative reinforcement

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A reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; as a result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur

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observational learning

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A learning process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behavior of another (a model) rather than through direct experience; sometimes called vicarious conditioning

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operant conditioning

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The process by which a response becomes more or less likely to occur, depending on its consequences

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positive reinforcement

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A reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the presentation of, or increase in intensity of, a reinforcing stimulus; as a result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur

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primary punisher

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A stimulus that is inherently punishing; an example is electric shock

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primary reinforcer

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A stimulus that is inherently reinforcing, typically satisfying a physiological need; an example is food

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punishment

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The process by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows

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reinforcement

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The process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it follows

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secondary punisher

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A stimulus that has acquired punishing properties through association with other punishers.

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secondary reinforcer

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A stimulus that has acquired reinforcing properties through association with other reinforcers

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An operant conditioning procedure in

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which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced; used when the desired response has a low probability of occurring spontaneously.

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social-cognitive theory

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Theories that emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, positive consequences, and cognitive processes such as plans, expectations and beliefs

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social-learning theory

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Theories that emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, positive consequences, and cognitive processes such as plans and expectat

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spontaneous recovery

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The reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction

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stimulus control

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Control over the occurrence of a response by a discriminative stimulus

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stimulus discrimination

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The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli; in classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus similar to the CS fails to evoke the CR; in operant conditioning, the tendency of a response to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not in the presence of other, similar stimuli that differ from it on some dimension

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stimulus generalization

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After conditioning, the tendency to respond to a stimulus that resembles one involved in the original conditioning; in classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response; in operant conditioning, the tendency for a response that has been reinforced (or punished) in the presence of one stimulus to occur (or be suppressed) in the presence of other, similar stimuli

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successive approximations

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In the operant conditioning procedure of shaping, behaviors that are ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the desired response

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token economy

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A behavior modification technique in which secondary reinforcers called tokens, which can be collected and exchanged for primary or other secondary reinforcers, are used to shape behavior

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unconditioned response (UR)

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The classical conditioning term for a reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning

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unconditioned stimulus (US)

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The classical conditioning term for a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning

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variable-interval (VI) schedule

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An intermittent schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered for a response made after a variable period of time has elapsed since the last reinforcer.

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variable-ratio (VR) schedule

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An intermittent schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses