Intro To Social Research

Front 1

Direct Knowledge

Back 1

Experience & Observation

Front 2

Indirect Knowledge

Back 2

Tradition & Authority

Front 3

Tradition

Back 3

Passed through socialization

Front 4

Authority

Back 4

Acceptance of knowledge that depends on the status of its discverer

Front 5

Common Errors of Human Inquiry

Back 5

Inaccurate Observations
Overgeneralization
Selective Observation
Illogical Reasoning

Front 6

Empirical Social Research

Back 6

Specific, Qualifies assertions, Based on Empirical Data, Reliable and Valid

Front 7

Theory

Back 7

A systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life.

Front 8

Inductive

Back 8

Observing something specific and particular data you are developing turns into broader theories. Generates Hypothesis,

Front 9

Deductive

Back 9

From general to particular: Theoretically expected pattern and then observes to test if pattern. Tests hypothesis

Front 10

Variable

Back 10

A value that comes with several attributes.

Front 11

Attributes

Back 11

Characteristics the variables

Front 12

Independent Variable

Back 12

Its value is independent (unaffected/manipulated by the experimenter) by the value of the Dependent variable.

Front 13

Dependent Variable

Back 13

Its value is depended (effected) on the value of the Independent variable

Front 14

Qualitative Data

Back 14

Non-numerical, descriptive information

Front 15

Quantitative Data

Back 15

Numerical information. Easy to manipulate, summarize, compare and analyze.

Front 16

Idiographic Model

Back 16

Unique, single case. More exhaustive, wealth of information.

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Nomothetic Model

Back 17

Explains a class of situations, uncovers general patterns of cause and effect.

Front 18

2 Models of Explanation

Back 18

Idiographic & Nomothetic

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Two Models of Reasoning

Back 19

Inductive & Deductive

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Indirect knowledge can be_____.

Back 20

Biased.

Front 21

3 Purposes of Theory

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Prevents us from being taken in by flukes

Facilitates social change

Help direct further research

Front 22

Paradigms are:

Back 22

Fundemental frames of reference used to organize observations-collections of theories which share assumptions, values and views of social reality.

Front 23

Macretheoretical Paradigms:

Back 23

focus on society at large and aggregates of individuals

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Microtheoretical Paradigms:

Back 24

Focus on small scale interaction, and individuals

Front 25

Elements of Theory:

Back 25

axioms/postulates

proposition

hypothesis

variables

concepts

data

Front 26

axioms/postulates

proposition

hypothesis

variables

concepts

data

Back 26

Axioms/Postulate: fundamental assertion taken to be true

Proposition: Conclusion about the relationships between concepts derived from the axiomatic framework

Hypothesis: Testable expectation about empirical reality

Variables: the value(s)

Concepts: an idea that is not real in reality but is real in
ideology (?)

Data: Information that supports or refutes the hypothesis

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5 Basic Ethical Principles Remember:

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1) Voluntary Participation
2) Avoid Harm to Participants
3) Avoid Deception (unless justified by the REB)
4) Ensure Privacy/Protect Identity
5) Consider Vulnerable Populations

Front 28

Examples of Unethical Conduct:

Back 28

Scientific Misconduct
Plagiarism
Research Fraud (Faking data)

Front 29

Confidential

Back 29

Knowing the identity of the individual but keeping the person's connection to the data confidential.

Front 30

Anonymity

Back 30

Not knowing the individuals you are researching.

Front 31

3 Main Purposes of Research

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1) Exploration
2) Description
3) Explanation

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Exploration is:

Back 32

Examining a new interest topic

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Description is:

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Reports on the characteristics of some population situation or even. Summarize with analysis/explanation

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Explanation is:

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Answers why things are the way they are. Causal; Regards the relationship amongst aspects of the phenomenon.

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Causation is:

Back 35

A scientific explanation that rests on the idea that events & conditions have causes. Causation models in social science are often probabilistic-nomothetic & idiographic.

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3 Conditions for Causation:

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2 Variables are correlated.
Temporal Order.
Non-spurious.
Intervening Relationships.

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2 Variables Correlated Means:

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Positive: X up, Y up.
Negative: X up, Y down.

Front 38

Temporal Order

Back 38

One variable goes before another variable. Cause before effect.

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Non-Spurious

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2 Variables change together, but neither one causes the other one.

Front 40

Intervening Relationships

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Relationship between 2 variables is explained by a 3rd that acts in between the 2.

X +I=Y

Front 41

What are Units of Analysis?

Back 41

Whatever it is that a researcher describes or explains and then draws inferences about

Front 42

3 Common Units of Analysis & explain:

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1) Individuals=often characterized re social groupings

2) Groups= When we study the characteristics that belong to a group.

3) Organizations= Mainly a type of group: social artefacts, books, buildings, weddings etc.

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Units of Observation are:

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What is directly observed, where the data comes from.

Front 44

Ecological Fallacy means:

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Mix-up of analysis and our unit of observation. Assuming that something learned about an ecological unit (ie: group) says something about the individual that make up the unit.

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3 Types of Longitudinal Studies

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1) Trend Study
2) Cohort Study
3) Panel Study

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Trend Study

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A type of longitudinal study that examines changes within a population over an extended period of time: successive census

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Cohort Study

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A type of longitudinal study that examines specific subpopulations as they change over time

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Panel Study

Back 48

A type of longitudinal study that examines specific individuals over an extended period of time.

Front 49

Panel Attrition

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Individuals that drop out by choice/circumstance

Front 50

Panel Conditioning

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People become overly-conscious to being observed.

Front 51

How to Design a Research Project

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1) Choice of Research Question
2) Conceptualization
3) Test hypothesis with variables

Front 52

What are Kaplan's 3 Main Classes?

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1) Direct observables (ie: cat is black)

2) Indirect Observables (ie: height on Driver's License)

3) Constructs (Theoretical creations based on observations

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A concept is:

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An abstract element representing classes of phenomena (ie: learning concepts through socialization-obedience we learn while growing up)

Front 54

Conceptualization is:

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The process of coming to an agreement about what concepts mean and represent.

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Operationalization is:

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The stage of when we decide how we will measure the concepts within the study (ie: GPA to measure intelligence)

Front 56

Indicators are:

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A sign of the presence or absence of the studied variable. Defining indicators often leads to controversy/disagreement.

Front 57

Multiple Indicators are:

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Using various measures of the same concept on the same subjects, to ensure that when the concept is present, it is identified and properly classified.

Front 58

2 Effective Ways of Using Multiple Indicators are:

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Indexes: constructed by accumulating scores assigned to individual attributes.

Scales: Assign scores to patterns of responses.

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3 Kinds of Definitions Used in Defining Concepts Are:

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1) Real Definition: reification (concepts aren't real-ie: love)

2) Nominal Definition: Specifies how a concept will be understood/defined for the research (ie: for the purpose of this research, intelligence is defined as the score of the GPA).

3) Operational Definition: Specifies how a concept will be measured for the purpose of one's research (ie: for the purpose of this study, trust will be seen as whether you leave your wallet unattended).

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Process of Researching Concepts:

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Conceptualization--Nominal Definition--Operational Definition--Measurement in the Real World

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2 Kinds of Operationalization

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1) Range of variation (interested in extremes)

2) Precision (distinction between attributes composing a variable)

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Define Jointly Exhaustive:

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Every possible observation can be classified into an attribute.

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Define Mutually Exhaustive:

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Every observation can be classified into only one attribute

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What are the levels of Measurement?

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NOIR:

Nominal-Have discrete categories that can't be ranked. Only JE & ME.

Ordinal-Attributes are JE, ME and can be logically ranked but not quantifiable.

Interval-Attributes JE, ME, can be logically ranked and the distance separating the attributes has meaning and is consistent, but there is NO "REAL" Zero.

Ration-Has a true zero. Attributes are JE, ME, ranked with fixed distance AND have a true zero.

Front 65

Define Reliability:

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Whether a particular measurement yields the same results when applied repeatedly to the same object/person.

Front 66

Define Validity:

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The extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the agreed-upon meaning of the concept under consideration. Are you measuring what you intend to measure?

Front 67

What are the four types of validity?

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1) Face Validity

2) Criterion-related Validity

3) Constructed Validity between concepts

4) Content Validity-how much of the concepts?

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Define Face Validity:

Back 68

Face validity is concerned with how a measure or procedure appears.

Front 69

Define Criterion-related Validity:

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Criterion-related validity is a concern for tests that are designed to predict someone’s status on an external criterion measure. A test has criterion-related validity if it is useful for predicting a person’s behavior in a specified situation.

Front 70

Define Constructed Validity:

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Construct validity seeks agreement between a theoretical concept and a specific measuring device or procedure. For example, a researcher inventing a new IQ test might spend a great deal of time attempting to "define" intelligence in order to reach an acceptable level of construct validity.