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24 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is learning?
Also, please discuss the difference between "classical learning" and "operant learning". |
Learning is the relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that is the result of experience.
Classical conditioning, aka classical learning: the environment does something and you react. Operant conditioning, aka operant learning: you do something and the environment reacts |
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Who is Ivan Pavlov?
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Early 20th cent Russian physiologist. He was studying the digestive system of dogs when he happen to notice an interesting phenomenon regarding what triggered dogs to start salivating.
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Please give a brief discussion of Pavlov's research regarding classical conditioning.
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Classical conditioning refers to the learning that occurs when a NEUTRAL STIMULUS (such as a sound) becomes associated with a STIMULUS (such as food) that naturally produces a behavior. After the association is learned the previously neutral stimulus is sufficient to produce the behavior.
-when food is fed, salivation occurs naturally -"bell" is rung before food is given -after a while, bell is rung (without food) and it alone results in salivation -this is more than just memory |
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(Classical Conditioning cont)
What are the following: US (unconditioned stimulus), UR (unconditioned response) and CS (conditioned stimulus) , CR (conditioned response) |
Think of "unconditional" as occurring NATURALLY:
Unconditional stimulus (US) is something, such as food, that triggers a NATURAL response Unconditional response (UR) is the naturally occurring response, such as salivation, that follows the unconditional stimulus. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Think of "conditioned" as LEARNED: Conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that, after being presented repeatedly prior to the US, evokes a similar response. In Pavlov's experiment. Conditioned response (CR) is the acquired response to the formerly neutral stimulus. *NOTE: the UR and CR are usually the same, the difference lies in what triggers it |
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(Classical Conditioning cont)
What are the evolutionary benefits of conditioning? |
Allows creatures to develop expectations that help prepare them for both good and bad events. ie/ smells a new food, eats it, feels sick therefore will not eat that food again
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(Classical Conditioning cont)
Please briefly explain extinction of conditioning. |
After Pavlov proved that learning could occur by association (acquisition), Pavlov expanded his research on conditioning to include studying the variables which either strengthened or weakened conditioning.
Extinction is the process by which there is a reduction in response when the conditional stimulus (CS), in this case sound, is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (US), in this case food. It is the weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response. |
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(Classical Conditioning cont)
What is spontaneous recovery? |
Although at the end of the 1st extinction period the conditioned response (CS) was no longer producing salivation, the effect of conditioning had not entirely disappeared. Pavlov discovered that after a pause sounding the tone again elicited salivation although to a lesser extent.
Definition is: the increase in responding to the CS following a pause after extinction |
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(Classical Conditioning cont)
What is generalization? |
Pavlov experimented with presenting new stimuli that were similar (but not identical) to the original conditioned stimulus. The dogs did salivate in response to similar stimuli.
Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the original CS (conditional stimulus). |
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(Classical Conditioning cont)
What is discrimination? |
The flip side of "generalization". Discrimination is the tendency to respond differently to stimuli that are similar but not identical.
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(Classical Conditioning cont)
What is second-order conditioning? |
An existing conditioned stimulus (CS) can serve as an unconditioned stimulus (US) for a pairing with new conditioned stimulus (CS).
Example: Pavlov first conditioned dogs to sound and the repeatedly paired sound with a new CS, a black square. Although never directly associated with food the dogs began salivating upon seeing the black square alone. |
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What is a phobia? How do phobias pertain to classical conditioning?
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A phobia:
is a strong and irrational fear of a specific object, activity or situation. Example - of phobia caused by experience: driving a car is a NEUTRAL event that does not usually elicit fear. Let's say someone experiences a panic attack while driving, he may then associate driving with panic attacks. Driving becomes the CS that now creates a fear response. Example - of phobias related to nature/evolutionary concerns: common phobias include fears of snakes, spiders, height, open spaces (agoraphobia), etc *Remember the behavioralist school argued that all learning is driven by experience, and that nature plays no role. Classical conditioning, which is based on learning through experience, represents an example of the significance of environment. HOWEVER, classical conditioning CANNOT be understood entirely in terms of experience alone. Nature ALSO plays a part - our evolutionary history is key to understanding the role of nature and learning. |
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(Classical Conditioning Con't)
What is "stimulus conditioning"? |
Stimulus conditioning is when the CS (conditioned stimulus) and US (unconditioned stimulus) begin and end together.
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(Classical Conditioning Con't)
What is short-delayed conditioning? |
Conditioned stimulus (CS) begins then ends before unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented.
Ex: sound of bell then food |
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(Classical Conditioning con't)
What is trace conditioning? |
a short event begins and ends (let's say a bell sounds and stops) THEN the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is presented (not very effective)
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(Classical Conditioning Con't)
What is "backward conditioning"? |
CS begins AFTER UCS is presented, ie/ bell sounds AFTER food. (not at all effective)
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Please give examples of constraints of conditioning.
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Instinctive drift: at some point will override conditioning as seen with monkeys
Conditional Taste Aversion: certain stimuli are more appropriate for certain responses. ie/ taste is better associated with something internal and sound is better associated with something external |
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Who is Edward Thorndike?
(operant conditioning) |
1st to study operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is learning that occurs based on the consequences of behavior. (ie, you do something and something happens)
He placed cats in "puzzle boxes" where they were rewarded each time they were able to get out. Each subsequent time they were placed in the puzzle they learned how to more quickly achieve the correct response (getting out of the box). Thorndike called this phenomenon "the law of effect" - responses that create a pleasant outcome in a particular situation are more likely to recur in a similar situation, wheras responses that create an unpleasant outcome are less likely to occur in the situation. |
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Who is BF Skinner?
(operant conditioning) |
Most influential behavioral psychologist of the 20th century who expanded Thorndike's research (law of effect - reward strengthens a certain action. He made "behaviorism" world-famous. Believed that all behavior is determined from one's environment.
He created specialized chambers, aka Skinner boxes, in order to study learning. A skinner box is a structure that can hold a rodent or bird which contains a lever or key that the animal can press to release food or water. (Very similar to Thorndike's cat boxes). Skinner expanded on Thorndike's research by studying how animals changed their behavior through REINFORCEMENT (an event that strengthens the likelihood of behavior) and PUNISHMENT (an event that weakens the likelihood of a behavior). He believed that people did not really have "free will" |
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(Operant Conditioning Con't)
Positive reinforcement and Negative reinforcement |
Reinforcement:
increases the likelihood of a behavior (when introducing a reinforcement we want it to happen again) There are 2 types of reinforcement: POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT is a pleasant stimulus PRESENTED AFTER a particular behavior (ie study head -> grade A) NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT is an unpleasant stimulus REMOVED AFTER a particular behavior (ie assignment cancelled bc class was well-behaved) |
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(Operant Conditioning Con't)
Positive punishment and Negative punishment |
Punishment
decreases the likelihood of a behavior 2 types of punishment: POSITIVE PUNISHMENT is an unpleasant stimulus PRESENTED AFTER a particular behavior (ie, spanked for talking back) NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT is pleasant stimulus REMOVED FOLLOWING a particular behavior (ie, you hit your sister so not cake for you) |
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(Operant Conditioning Con't)
Continuous reinforcement schedule versus Partial reinforcement |
ex/ a dolphin picks up a ring from the bottom of the pool when given a command from his trainer
Continuous reinforcement schedule: the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs. although results are fast learning extinction is rapid once reinforcer disappears (creature will give up quickly once reinforcer does not appear bc it is used to receiving reinforcement after every behavior Partial reinforcement: most real-world reinforcers are not continuous, they occur on a partial or intermittent reinforcement schedule. slower initial learning but also leads to greater resistance to extinction (takes longer for organism to determine that the reward is not coming) |
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(Operant Conditioning Con't)
Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Fixed interval Variable interval |
Fixed Ratio:
behavior in reinforced after a specific # of responses example - factory workers paid according to how many widgets they make Variable Ratio: behavior is reinforced after an average but unpredictable # of responses example - payoffs from slot machines Fixed interval: behavior is reinforced for the first response after a specific amount of time has passes example - people who earn a monthly salary Variable interval: behavior is reinforced for the first response after an average but unpredictable amount of time has passes example - person who checks voice mail for messages |
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(Operant Conditioning Con't)
What is shaping? What are "primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers"? |
p 207
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Learning by Insight and Observation
Kohler Bandura BoBo Doll |
behaviorists such as Watson and Skinner believed that ALL learning could be explained by the process of conditioning (associations influence learning). BUT some types of learning are more difficult to explain using only conditioning. although classic and operant conditioning play key roles in learning they are only part of the total picture
Insight: (Kohler) the sudden understanding of a solution to a problem, idea just pops into our heads Latent learning: (Tolman) refers to learning that is not reinforced and not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so example: 3 set of rats going through mazes Learning by watching: latent learning suggests that animals may learn simply by experiencing or watching, learning by observing the behavior of others example - children watched adult beat up a Bobo doll. when it was their turn to play in the room full of toys they, too, beat up on the Bobo doll **important when it comes to risky behavior, monkey and snake **also, seeing violence may make children more prone to be being violent themselves (living in a home with abuse) |
