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203 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Activity theory of aging
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the theory that suggests that successful aging is characterized by maintaining the interests and activities of earlier stages of life
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Adolescence
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the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood
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Age of viability
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the point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely
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Algorithm
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a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem
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Alzheimer's disease
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a progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities
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Alzheimer's disease
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a progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities
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Amnesia
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memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties
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Androgens
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male sex hormones secreted by the testes
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Anorexia nervosa
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a severe eating disorder in which people may refus to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance-which can become skeleton-like--are unusual
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Anterograde amnesia
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amnesia in which memory is lost for events that follow an injury
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Arousal approaches to motivation
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the belief that we try to maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity
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Attachment
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the positive emotional bond that develops between a child an a particular individual
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Authoriatarian parents
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parents who are rigid and punitive and value unquestiong obedience from their children
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Authoritative parents
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parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them
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Autobiographical memory
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our recollections of our own life experiences
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Autonomy v. Shame & Doubt Stage
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the period during which, according to Erikson, toddlers (ages 1&1/2 to 3 years) develop independence and autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected
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Babble
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meaningless speech-like sounds made by children from around the age of 3 months through 1 year
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Behavior modification
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a formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behhaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
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Bisexuals
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persons who are sexually attracted to people of the same sex and the other sex
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Bulimia
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a disorder in which a person binges on large quantities of food, followed by efforts to purge the food through vomiting or other means
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Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
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the belief that both physiological arousal and emotional experience are produces simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus
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Central executive processor
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that is involved in reasoning and decision making. Includes three storage and rehearsal systems: visual store, verbal store, and the episodic buffer
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Chromosomes
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rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information
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Chunk
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a grouping of information that can be stored in short-term memory
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Classical conditioning
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a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response
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Cognitive approaches to motivation
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theories suggesting that motivation is a result of people's throughts, beliefs, exprectations, and goals
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Cognitive development
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the process by which a child's understanding of the world changes due to their age and experience
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Cognitive learning theory
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an approach to the study of learning that focuses on he thought processes that underlie learning
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Concept
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a mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people
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Concrete Operational Stage
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According to Plaget, the period from 7 to 12 years of age that is characterized by logical thought and a loss or egocentrism
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Conditioned response (CR)
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a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salvation at the ringing of a bell).
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Conditioned stimulus (CS)
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a once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with a unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus
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Confirmation bias
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the tendency to find and apply information that supports one's initial solution or idea and to ignore information that does not support it
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Constructive processes
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processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events
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Continuous reinforcement schedule
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a schedule in which behavior is reinforced every time the behavior occurs
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Convergent thinking
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thinking in which a problem is viewed as having a single answer and which produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic
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Creativity
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the ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways
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Cross-sectional research
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a research method that compares people of different ages at the same point of time
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Crystallized intelligence
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the accumulation of information, knowledge, and skills that people have learned through experience and education
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Cue-dependent forgetting
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forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory
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Culture-fair IQ test
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a test trial that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group
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Decay
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the loss of information in memory through its nonuse
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Declarative memory
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memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like
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Developmental psychology
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the branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life
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Disengagement theory of aging
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the theory that suggests that successful aging is characterized by a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels
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Divergent thinking
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thinking that generates unusual, yet nonetheless apropriate, responses to problems or questions
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Double standard
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the view that pre-marital sex is permissible for males but not for females
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Drive
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motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need
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Drive-reduction approaches tomotivation
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theories suggesting that a lack of some basic biological need produces a drive to push an organism to satisfy that need
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Echoic memory
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stores auditory information coming from the ears
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Ego Integrity v. Despair Stage
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period from late adulthood until death during which we review life's accomplishments and failures
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Egocentric thought
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a way of thinking in which a child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective
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Elaborative rehearsal
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occurs when the information in considered and organized in some fashion
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Embryo
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a developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs
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Emerging adulthood
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the period beginning in the late teenage years and extending into the mid-20s
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Emotional intelligence
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the set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotion
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Emotions
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feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior
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Encoding
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the initial process of recording information in a form usuable to memory is the first stage in remembering something
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Episodic memory
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memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context
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Estrogens
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class of female sex hormones
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Explicit memory
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intentional or conscious recollection of information
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Extinction
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a basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears
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Extramarital sex
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sexual activity between a married person and someone who is not his or her spouse
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Facial-affect program
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activation of a set of nerve impulses that make the face display the appropriate expression
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Facial-feedback hypothesis
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the hypothesis that facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience but also help determine how people experience and label emotions
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Familial retardation
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intellectual disability in which no apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of it in the family
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Fetal alcohol syndrome
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the most common cause of intellectual disability in newborns, occurring when the mother uses alcohol during pregnancy
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Fetus
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a developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth
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Fixed-interval schedule
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a schedule in which reinforcement is provided for a response only after a fixed time period has elapsed
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Fixed-ratio schedule
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a schedule in which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made
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Flashbulb memories
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memories of a specific, important, or surprising emotional significant event that are recalled easily and with vivid imagery
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Fluid intelligence
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intelligence that reflects the ability to reason abstractly
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Formal Operational Stage
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According to Plaget, the period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract thought
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Functional fixedness
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the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use
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G or G-factor
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the single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence
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Generativity v. Stagnation Stage
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period in middle adulthood during which we take stock of our contributions to family and society
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Genes
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the parts of the chromosomes through which genetic information is transmitted
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Genetic preprogramming theories of aging
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theories that suggest that human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction and that they are no longer able to divide after a certain time
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Genitals
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the male and female sex organs
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Grammar
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the system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed
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Habituation
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the decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus
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Heritability
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a measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors
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Heterosexuality
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sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex
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Heuristic
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a thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or decision, but-unlike algorithms-may sometimes lead to errors
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Homeostatsis
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the body's tendency to maintain a steady internal state
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Homosexuals
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persons who are sexually attracted to members of their own sex
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Iconic memory
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reflects information from the visual system
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Identical twins
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twins who are genetically identical
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Identity
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the distinguishing character of the individual: who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of
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Identity v. Role Confusion Stage
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According to Erikson, a time in adolescence of major testing to determine one's unique qualities
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Implicit memory
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memories of which people are not consciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behavior
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Incentive approaches to motivation
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theories suggesting that motivation stems from the desire to attain external rewards, known as incentives
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Industry v. Inferiority Stage
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the last stage of childhood, during which children ages 6 to 12 years may develop positive social interactions with others or may feel inadequate and become less sociable
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Information processing
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the way in which people take in, use, and stores infromation
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Initiative v. Guilt Stage
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the period during which children 3 to 6 years experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action
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Insight
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a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appreared to be independent of one another
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Instincts
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inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned
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Intellectual disability (or mental retardation)
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a condition characterized by significant limitations both in tellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills
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Intellectually gifted
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the 2%-4% segment of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130
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Intelligence
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the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges
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Intelligence quotient (IQ)
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a measure of intelligence that takes into account an individual's mental and chrononlogical ages
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intelligence tests
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tests devised to quantify a person's level of intelligence
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Interactionist approach (to language development)
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the view that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language
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Interference
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the phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information
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Intimacy v. Isolation Stage
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period during early adulthood that focuses on developing close relationships
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james-Lange theory of emotions
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the belief that emotional experience is a reaction to bodily events occurring as a result of an external situation ('I feel sad because I am crying").
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Korsakoff's syndrome
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a disease that afflicts long-term alcoholics, leaving some ablilities intact but including hallucinations and a tendency to repeat the same story
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Language
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the communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules
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Latent learning
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learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it
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Learning
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a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience
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Learning-theory approach (to language development)
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the theory that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning
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Levels-of-processing theory
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the theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed
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Life review
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the process by which people examin and evaluate their lives
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Linguistic-relativity hypothesis
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the hypothesis that language shapes and may determine the way people perceive and understand the world
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Long-term memory
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memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve
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Longitudinal research
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a research method that investigates behavior as participants get older
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Masturbation
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sexual self-stimulation
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Means-ends analysis
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involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists
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Memory
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the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information
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Menopause
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the period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile
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Mental age
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the age for which a given level of performance is average or typical
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Mental images
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representations in the mind of an object or event
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Mental set
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the tendency to approach a problem in a certain way because that method worked previously
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Metabolism
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the rate at which food is converted to energy and expended by the body
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Mnemonics
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formal techniques for organizing information in a way that makes it more likely to be remembered
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Motivation
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the factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms
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Nativist approach (to language development)
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the theory that humans are biologically pre-wired to learn language at certain times and in particulr ways
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Nature-nurture issue
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the issue of the degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior
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Need for achievement
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a stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satifisfaction by striving for and achieving challenging goals
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Need for affliliation
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an interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people
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Need for power
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a tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others and to be seen as a powerful individual
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Negative reinforcer
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an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future
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Neonate
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a newborn child
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Neutral stimulus
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a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest
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Norms
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standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person's score on a test with the scores of other individuals who have taken the same test
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Obesity
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body weight that is more than 20% above the average weight for a person of a particiular height
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Object permanence
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the awareness that objects and people, continue to exisst even if they are out of sight
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Observational learning
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learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model
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Operant conditioning
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learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences
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Overgeneralization
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the phenomenon by which children over-apply a language rule, thereby making a linguistic error
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Ovulation
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the point at which an egg is released from the ovaries
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Partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule
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a schedule in which behavior is reinforced some but not all of the time
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Permissve parents
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parents who give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction and, although they are warm, require little of them
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Phonology
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the study of the smallest units of speech, called phonemes
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Positive reinforcer
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a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response
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Practical intelligence
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according to Sternberg, intelligecne related to overall success in living
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Preoperational Stage
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According to Plaget, the period from 2 to 7 years of age that is characterized by language development
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Primacy effect
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items presented early in a list are remembered better
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Priming
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a phenomenon that occurs when exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall related information
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Principle of conservation
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the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects
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Proactive interference
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interference in which information learned earlier disrupts the recall of material learned later
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Procedural memory
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memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball; sometimes referred to as nondeclarative memory
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Prototypes
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typical, highly representative examples of a concept
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Psychosocial development
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development of individuals' interactions and understanding of each other and of their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society
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Puberty
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the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about the age 11 or 12 for girls and 13 or 14 for boys
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Punishment
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a stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again
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Recall
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memory task in which specific information must be retrieved
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Recency effect
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items presented late in a list are remembered best
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Recognition
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memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives
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Reflexes
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unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli
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Rehearsal
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the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory
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Reinforcement
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the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
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Reinforcer
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Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again
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Reliability
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the property by which tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure
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Retrieval
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material in memory storage has to be located and brought into awareness to be useful, this is the last process
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Retroactive interference
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interference in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier
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Retrograde amnesia
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amnesia in which memory in lost for occurences prior to a certain event, but not for new events
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Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
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the belief that emotions are determined jointly by a nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation, based on environmental cues
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Schedules of reinforcement
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different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior
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Schemas
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organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled
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Self-actualization
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a state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential in their own unique way
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Semantic memory
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memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts
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Semantic networks
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mental representations of clusters of interconnected information
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Sensorimotor Stage
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According to Plaget, the stage from birth to 2 years during which a child has little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols
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Sensory memory
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the initial momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant
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Serial position effect
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in which the ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list an item appears
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Shaping
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the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
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Short-term memory
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memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds
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Spontaneous recovery
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the reemergence of a extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning
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Spreading activation
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activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories
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Stimulus discrimination
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the process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between stimuli
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Stimulus generalization
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a process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response
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Storage
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the maintenance of material saved in memory
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Syntax
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ways in which words and phrases can be combined to form sentences
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Telegraphic speech
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sentences in which only essential words are used
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Temperament
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a basic, inborn characteristic way of responding and behavioral style
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Teratogens
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environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produces a birth defect
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Theory of multiple intelligences
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Gardner's intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence
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Thinking
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brain activity in which people mentally manipulate information, including words, visual images, sounds, or other data
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Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
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the inability to recall information that one realizes one knows-a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory
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Transsexuals
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people whose sexual identification is with the opposite gender from that they were born with; they feel they are trapped in the body of the other gender
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Trust v. Mistrust Stage
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According to Erikson, the first stage of psychosocial development, occurring from birth to age 1&1/2 years, during which time infants develop feelings of trust or lack of trust
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Unconditioned response (UCR)
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a response that is natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food)
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Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
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a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned
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Uninvolved parents
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parents who show little interest in their children and are emotionally detached
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Validity
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the property by which tests actually measure what they are supposed to measure
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Variable-interval schedule
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a schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed
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Variable-ratio schedule
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a schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number
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Wear-and-tear theories of aging
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theories that suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently
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Weight set point
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the particular level or weight that the body strives to maintain
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Working-memory
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a memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information
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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
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According to Vygotsky, the gap between what children already are able to accomplish on their own and what they are not quite ready to do by themselves
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Zygote
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the new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm
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