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62 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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what are the three parts of the modal model of memory?
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Sensory memory, Working (short-term) memory, long-term memory
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sensory memory
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a momentary trace of the sensory input – what we see, hear, smell etc, even if we are not paying attention – mostly unconscious
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working/short-term memory
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small momentary capacity, the center of conscious thought; processes information from both sensory and long-term memory
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long-term memory
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the minds database/library – large storage capacity – a passive repository
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what processes control the flow of information from one part of memory to the other?
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attention, encoding, retrieval
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what is the significance of the gorilla’s in our midst experiment?
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selective viewing and how the human eye can miss objects as blatant as the gorrilla when focusing on the number of passes and not looking for the gorilla
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how do we refer to auditory and visual sensory memory?
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echioic and iconic memory
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what is the Stroop effect? How does it work?
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automatic, obligatory processing---the speed of naming the ink color depends on the person’s ability not to read the word
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who is Alan Baddeley?
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verbal working memory – the phonological loop-- the part of short-term memory that holds onto verbal information by rehearsing it – associated with the span of short-term memory
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what are the parts of working memory?
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phonological loop, visuospacial sketchpad, central executive
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what do we mean by maintenance rehearsal and encoding?
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maintenance rehearsal- the process by which we hold information in working memory through repetition
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encoding- the process by which we encode information into long-term memory
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how do we improve our chances of storing information in LTM?
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elaboration- goal is not to memorize but understand input information
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who are Tulving and Craik?
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did an experiment where subjects were asked to associate words with print, sound and meaning and found that meaning was the highest percent recognized
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what did James say about associations?
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pointed out that association by similarity can be understood as a derivative of the more primitive and fundamental principle of association by contiguity.
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what did Bartlett say about schemes and scripts?
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used the term schema to describe a mental representation of a given class of objects or events
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scripts describe events in time rather than objects in space
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what’s the difference between episodic and semantic memory?
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episodic- one’s own experiences
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semantic- word meanings; facts; general knowledge
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what are the problems with retrieving memories?
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leading questions, suggestions, imagination, source confusion, and social pressures can distort memory
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what’s the difference between explicit and implicit memory? Give examples.
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explicit memory (eg memory for faces or events)
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implicit memory (eg conditioned responses; motor skills)
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what’s the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?
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inductive- the attempt to infer some new principle or proposition from observations or facts that serve as clues
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deductive- an attempt to derive logically the consequences that must be true if certain premises are accepted as true
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what is the confirmation bias?
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a tendency to want to confirm rather than disprove a hypothesis
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how do you solve insight problems?
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seem to come first with a realization that the usual method will not work and then a re-examination of the alternative aspects of the materials involved
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what are Japanese students likely to see in a fish tank?
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the whole scene rather than just the fish because of their respective cultural background
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what does Fredrickson’s “broaden and build” theory argue?
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emotions are also important – a happy, playful mood improves problem solving – perhaps because anxiety and low mood create a protective focus – or because playfulness primes us to see ‘out of the box’
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what theory is Sapir and Whorf associated with?
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argued that language affects the ways we “…perceive, remember and think about the world.” (Gray, p 358) – Whorf described this in terms of linguistic relativity – eg – spatial terms and spatial reasoning (egocentric versus absolute frame of reference); number of words and math ability; gender and the generic man; language and emotional problem solving
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who is Francis Galton and what did he propose about intelligence?
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published Hereditary Genius (1869) understood intelligence as an inherited, biological, capacity reflected in mental quickness and sensory acuity
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who is Alfred Binet and what was his idea of intelligence?
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intelligence is best understood as a collection of closely related, high-order mental abilities – nurtured by environmental interaction – the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale became widely used – later developed into the Stanford Binet Scale
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what is the WAIS?
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The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (1930’s)
the full-scale score is based on the sum of the verbal and performance sub-tests - scoring is based on normative data with an assigned average of 100 – the overall distribution is represented as the bell shaped normal distribution; validity is measured in relation to eg school success or job-performance |
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how did Cattell describe intelligence? how do these 2 types change with age
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distinguished fluid and crystallized intelligence
fluid intelligence (the ability to perceive relationships among stimuli independent of experience) and crystallized intelligence (ability derived directly from experience) |
fluid peaks at 20-25, declining gradually afterward
crystallized- typically continues to increase until about age 50 or later |
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what is Spearman’s ‘g’?
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the basis for g –mental speed; working memory capacity; mental self-government/central executive function (Sternberg 1985) aided by the pre-frontal cortex
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what is the statistical term to describe the variance in intelligence due to genes?
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the transient nature of family influence
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what’s the problem with between group comparisons of intelligence?
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the heritability of a trait within a group tells us nothing about differences between groups
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what’s the difference between a voluntary and involuntary minority – what’s it got to do with intelligence?
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voluntary- italian/americans (those who see themselves bettering their lives by emigrating away from their homes)
involuntary- native americans (those who were enslaved without choice |
involuntary minority, according to Ogbu score lower on IQ tests
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what do infants feel about novelty and control?
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novelty-an infant as young as 1 day old perceived the difference between 2 checker-boards with different-sized squares
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control-infants as young as 2 months learned how to turn on a sound recording of Sesame street and showed anger when the device was disconnected
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what is social referencing?
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infants look at their caregivers emotional expressions for clues about the possible danger of their own actions
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who is Renee Baillargeon? What was her improbable task?
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used selective looking to assess what infants expect to happen in specific conditions
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who is Jean Piaget?
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object permanence- term for the understanding that an object still exists even when it is out of view G8
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what’s the difference between accommodation and assimilation?
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accommodation-the process by which existing schemes expand or change
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assimilation-the process by which new experiences are incorporated into existing schemes
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what are Piaget’s 4 stages
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1. sensorimotor- roughly the first 2 years – associated with understanding the nature of objects eg object permanence – knowledge is gained through increasingly complex action
2. pre-operational- age 2 to 7; understanding is based on appearance rather than principles |
3. concrete operational- age 7 – 12; the child can think abstractly about concrete problems and understand reversibility – they establish conservation of number, length, substance – eg the glass experiment or the ball of clay
4. the formal operational stage - 12 onwards - based in principles that have broad application |
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what is conservation and object permanence?
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object permanence-Piaget’s term for the understanding that an object still exists even when it is out of view G8
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Vygotsky
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what’s Vygotsky’s first name?
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Lev
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what is the zone of proximal development and how does it relate to play?
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collaboration and dialogue – the zone of proximal development – the difference between what a child can alone and what he can do in collaboration with a more competent other – critical thinking develops in dialogue with others
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why does a child say feets?
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because they literally see two feet
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why does a child have difficulty with false beliefs and how does this relate to pretend play?
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understanding false belief – the difficulty in believing that someone can believe – inability to decenter
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pretend play does not create the same confusion as false beliefs – Leslie (1991) suggests that pretense is the basis for understanding false beliefs and, later, hypothetical reasoning
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what did the Nicaraguan children do – why is it important?
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deaf kids learned to communicate using their own form of sign language
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who is Noam Chomsky? – and what is an LAD and an LASS?
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LAD-the entire set of innate mental mechanisms that enable a child to acquire language quickly and efficiently
evidence for a LAD - children’s invention of grammar where none exists – eg in the development of creole language (Bickerton 1984) and sign language in a Nicaraguan school |
The language acquisition support system--universal motherese – repetitive, emphatic, simplified – language acquisition is related to – mother’s verbal responsiveness; degree of simplified motherese; total amount of time and range of words
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what do Washoe and Kanzi teach us about language?
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Washoe raised by the Gardners with American Sign Language; Kanzi
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who is John Bowlby? – and what is attachment?
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refers to the strong emotional bonds that develop between infant and caregiver (Bowlby 1958; Erikson 1963)
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what kind of attachments are possible?
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distress in separation; comfort in contact; confidence to explore unfamiliar environments; and reassured in the presence of strangers – a universal and highly functional biological mechanism
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what’s the relationship of attachment to adult adjustment?
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secure infants are on average more confident, better problem solvers, emotionally healthier and more sociable and the quality of attachment is consistently predictive of the quality of peer relationships well into middle school and early adolescence (Waters et al 2003)
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who developed the Strange Situation expt – why?
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Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Test – an assessment of attachment – secure; avoidant; anxious – the fear-inducing element of the test be a limited measure of attachment –in the context of temperament; experience and cultural expectations
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which mother did Harlow’s monkey’s prefer?
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Both because he needed them to survive. one for nourishment, the other for care and affection
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are American Children more likely to have a blankie? Why?
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yes, because children are are required to sleep alone thus developing an attachment to blankie, etc.
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what does Bowlby mean by ‘working model’ of attachment? – what influences attachment (about 4 things)
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• parental sensitivity - synchronicity, well-timed balanced responses (Ainsworth 1979; Van den Boom 1994)
• Infant characteristics – temperament • The caregiver’s story - being parented • Contemporary factors – health; support; work |
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who is Hoffman and what did he say about parenting? – did Baumrind agree?
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Hoffman (1983; 2000) – defines discipline in terms of induction; power assertion; love withdrawal - authoritative rather than authoritarian or permissive parenting is correlated with positive adjustment (Baumrind 1986)
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what did children learn from play and do boys like to play with girls?
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acquiring skills – universal and species specific skills which reflect the broader culture (eg Fry 1992); an opportunity to explore fantasies and to practice symbolic thinking and moral reasoning; a vehicle for self-control – impulse control and self-regulation
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who is Eleanor Maccoby?
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parents and caregivers behave differently towards boys and girls from birth (Maccoby 1998; Culp et al 1983) – this continues into later childhood and appears again in school in terms of differential encouragement
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when do we most focus on identity?
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gender identity is established by around 4 or 5 – it then becomes connected with social roles – in some ways like grammatical rules – but also through experience
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what is the personal fable and the imaginary audience?
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a sense that you are unique and at the center of both your own experience and the experience of others
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what did Lawrence Kohlberg do?
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Lawrence Kohlberg (1984) proposed that moral reasoning develops through stages from a simple reward/punishment rational to a more complex universal principles – adolescents tend to reason at a more complex level
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what does Hart mean by ‘moral identity’
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developing a moral identity – adolescents who are engaged in a high level of moral behavior are usually motivated more by personal investment than reasoning (Hart 1995) – a further influence was a role model – often a parent
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what are the 2 things Freud argued were important in adult development?
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Love and work
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what is the ‘paradox of aging’
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• the ‘paradox of aging’ suggests a surprising satisfaction and enjoyment in later life
• in research – a movement from theories of ‘disengagement’ to one of ‘socioemotional selectivity’ (Carstensen 1992) • making sense of life; coping with loss • developing a perspective on death – in Erikson’s term’s ‘integrity versus despair” |
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