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97 Cards in this Set
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- Back
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What happened 1648? |
Peace of Westphalia. First european peace based on sovereignty. States recognize each others sovereighnty. Balance of power. - The outcome was that all the states that had been small communitys had now became sovereign states. The roman empire was over. You could choose more, what religion would be best for your state.
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What is balance of power? |
The fear from one powerful state for another powerful state Relative peace came from a balance of power. States will hesitate to start a war with an adversary whose power to fight and win wars is relatively balanced, symmetrical, because the risk of defeat is high. Asymmetrical balance= when one state or coalition of states is much more powerful than its adversaries. example: Britain and Russia. Any actor or coalition that tries to assume dominance must be constrained States want to increase their capabilities by acquiring territory, increasing their population, or developing economically Negotiating is better than fighting Sometimes though, fighting is better than failing to increase capabilities, because no one else will protect a weak state Other states are viewed as potential allies States seek their own national interests, defined in terms of power.
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What happeed in nineteenth century Europe?
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From revolutions emerge two concepts: absolutist rule subject to limitations, and nationalism. A system managed by the balance of power brings relative peae to Europe. Elites are united in fear of the masses, and domestic concerns are more important than foregin policy. European imperialism in Asia and Africa helps to maintain the European balance of power. The balance of power breaks down due to imperial Germany’s too-rapid growth and the increasig rigidity of alliances, resulting in World War 1. |
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What happened in the interwar years?
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Three empires collapse: Russia by revolution, the Austro-Hungarian Empire by dismemberment, and the Ottoman Empire by external wars and internal turmoil. This leads to a resurgence of nationalism. German dissatisfaction with the World War 1 settlement leads to fascism. Germany finds allies in Italy and Japan. A weak League of Nations is unable to respond to Japanese, Italian and German aggression. Nor can it respond to widespread economic depression. |
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What happened in the cold war?
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Two superpowers emerge - the United States and the Soviet Union. They are divided by national interests, ideologies, and mutual misperceptions. These divisions are projected into different geographic areas. A servies of crises occurs - Berlin blockade, Korean War, Cuban missile crisis, Vietnam war, Soviet invasion of Afghanistan A long peace is sustained by mutual deterrence. |
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What happened in the immediate post-cold war era?
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Changes are made in Soviet/Russian foreign policy, with the withdrawals from Afghanistan and Angola in the late 1980s, monitored by the United Nations. Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and the multilateral response unite the former Cold War adversaries. Glasnost and Perestroika continue in Russia, as reorganized in 1992-93 The former Yugoslavia disintegrates into independent states; civil war ensues in Bosnia and Kosovo, leading to UN and NATO action. Widespread ethnic conflict arises in central and western Africa, Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. |
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What happened in the first decade of the new millennium?
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Al Qaeda terrorist network commits terrorist acts against the homeland of the United States and U.S. interests abriad; U.s. and coalition forces respond militarily in Afghanistan and Iraq. Terrorist attacks occur in Saudi Arabia, Spain, and Great Britain A financial crisis in the United States in 2008 devastates its economy and rapidly spreads to other countries. In the spring of 2011, Tunisia becomes the irst in a series of Arab countries in which a popular uprising topples a long-established dictator. The toppling of Tunisias dictator was followed by the ousting of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak and Libyan leader Muammar Qaddafi. Upringings followed in Bahrain and Syria, but the outcomes remain indeterminate. |
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What is the Prisoners dilemma?
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The story of two prisoners who are interrogated separately for an alleged crime. The police have enough evidence to convict both prisoners on a minor charge but need a confession in order to convict them on a major charge. An interrogator tells each prisoner that if one of them testifies against the other (defects) and the other stays silent(cooperates), the one who defects will go free, but the one who cooperates will get a one-year prison term. If both defect, both will get three-month prison terms. If neither defects (i.e., they both cooperate and stay silent) both will revceive one-month prison terms for the minor charge. Most likely, both will defect. Realist and liberalism can apply this. |
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What is bandwagoning?
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The logic that the more power you have, the more power you get. Conquest, in other words, pays.
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What is The Notion of a System?
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A system, is an assemblage of units, objects, or parts united by some form of regular interaction. The concept of systems is essential to the physical and biological sciences; systems are composed of different interacting units, whether at the micro (cell, plant, animal) or the macro (natural ecosystem or global climate) level. Because these units interact, a change in one unit causes changes in the others. With their interacting parts, systems tend to respond in regularized ways; heir actions have patterns. Boundaries separate one system from another, but there can be exchanges across these boundaries. A system can break down when changes within it become so significant that in effect a new system emerges. |
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What is multipolar system?
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Nineteenth-century balance of power – a lot of different units are interacting with eachother.
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What is bipolar system?
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The cold war era; two allies are interacting.
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What is unipolar system?
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The immediate post-cold War era, With U.S and all other countries on the one hand, and U.S. hegemony with EU and Peoples Republic of China on the other hand.
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What is the realist perspective on the international system?
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The characterization is anarchic. The actors are the state. Constraints=polarity The possibility of change is that Slow change when the balance of power shifts or technological change occurs.
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What is the liberal perspective on the international system?
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The characterization is three liberal interpretations: interdependence among actors, an international order, neoliberal institutionalism. The actors are states, international governmental institutions, nongovernmental organizations, multinational corporations, substate actors constraints=interdependence; institutions The possibility of change is low likelihood of radical change, but may occur; constant incremental change as actors are involved in new relationships. |
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What is the international system according to Radicals?
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Radicals describe the structure of the international system by stratification. Stratification refers to the uneven division of resources among different groups of states. The characterization is highly stratified. The actors are capitalist states vs. developing states Constraints=capitalism; stratification Possibility of change is that radical change desired but limited by the capitalist structure. (Developed countries are a few, but they have most power, developing countries are many, but does not have any power at all). |
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What is the constructivism view on the international system?
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Characterization is International system exists as social construct. Actors are that Individuals matter; no differentiation between international and domestic. Constraints = ongoing interactions. Possibility of change = Emphasis on change in social norms and identities. |
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What is multilateralism?
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Multilateralism is based on core principles, such as the collective security system. Briefly, collective security rests on the idea that peace is indivisible: a war against one is a war against all, meaning that the international commintu is obligated to respond.
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What is a state?
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Four fundamental legal conditions must be met. 1. a state must have a territorial base, with geographically defined boundaries. 2. within its borders, a stable population must reside. 3. there sould be a government to which this population owes allegiance. 4. A state has to be recognized diplomatically by other states. The state is a normative order, a symbol for a particular society nd the beliefs that bind the people living within its borders. It is also the intity that has a monopoly on the legitimate use of violenece within a society. The state is functional unit that takes on a number of important responsibilities, centralizing and unifying them. |
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What is the realist view of the state?
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The state is: An autonomous actor. Constrained only by the anarchy of the international system Sovereign Guided by the national interest that is defined in terms of power.
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What is the liberal view of the state?
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The state is: a process, involving contending interests A reflection of both governmental and societal interests The repository of multiple and changing national interests The possessor of fungible sources of power.
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What is the radical view of the state?
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The state is: The executing agent of the bourgeoisie. Influenced by pressures from the capitalist class. Constrained by the structure of the international capitalist system.
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What is the constructivist view of the state?
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The state is: A socially constructed entity. The repository of national interests that change over time. Shaped by international norms that change preferences. Influenced by changing national interests that shape and reshape identities. Socialized by IGOs and NGOs |
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What are liberal, realist, radical and constructivist view of the nature of state power?
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constructivists=emphasize the nonmaterialist sources found in the power of ideas, one of the intangible soruces. Realists and radicals conceptualize power in materialist terms, primarily in natural and tangible sources. Liberals conceptualize power in materialist terms but also pay attention to intangible power sources.
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What is natural sources of power?
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Geographic size and position, natural resources and population.
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What is state power?
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Natural sources of power: geography Natural resources Population
Tangible sources of power: Industrial development Level of infrastructure Characteristics of military
Intangible sources of power: National image public support Leadership
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What is the exercise of state power?
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The art of diplomacy – Diplomacy entails states trying to influence the behavior of other actors by negotiating, by taking a specific action or refraining from such action, or by conducting public diplomacy. Bargaining. Public diplomacy is another form of diplimacy. It involves targeting both foreign publics and elites, attempting to create an overall image that enhances a countrys ability to achieve its diplomatic objectives. Celebrity diplomacy aims at influencing not only the public but persuading decision makers as well. Economic statecraft – States use positive and negative sanctions to try to influence other states. Smart sanctions, including freezing assets of governments and/or individuals and imposing commodities sanctions. Targeting has involved not just what but also who, as the international community has tried to affect specific individuals and rebel groups, reduce ambiguity and loopholes, and avoid the high humanitarian costs of general sanctions. The use of force – Force and threat of force. Central to realist thinking. With the strategy of compellence, a state tries, by threatening to use force, to get another state to do something or to undo an act that it has undertaken. Democracy and Foreign Policy |
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What types of sanctions are there in economic statecraft?
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Positive sanctions: Give the target state the same trading privileges given to your best trading partner as incentive for policy change. Allow sensitive trade with target state, including military useful equipment. Give corporations investment guarantees or tax breaks as incentives to invest in target state. Allow importation of target state's products into your country at best tariff rates. Negative sanctions: Freeze target state's assets Blacklist target state. Boycott goods and services of target states. Ban importation of one or all products of target state. |
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Which different models of Foreign Policy Decision Making are there?
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The rational model – Conceives of foreign policy as actions chosen by the national governmental The bureaucratic/organizational model – Organizational model: Subunits → Standard operating procedures → Decision. Bureaucracic model: Subgroups and Individuals → Bargaining based on different interests → Decision. The pluralist model - Interest groups, Multinational corporations, Pubic opinion, Mass movements to → State to → Decision. |
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What are the rational model of decision making?
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State as unitary actor ->clearly idenfifies the problem → elucidates goals → Determines policy alternatives → analyzes costs and benefits of alternatives → selects action that produces best outcome at least cost.
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What is the realist perspective on state power and policy?
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The nature of state power – Emphasis on power as key concept in international relations; geography, natural resources, population especially important. Using state power – Emphasis on coercive techniques of power; use of force acceptable How foreign policy is made – Emphasis on rational model of decision making; unitary state actor assumed once decision is made. Determinants of foreign policy – Largely external/international determinants |
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What are The Organizational Model?
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Foreign policy decisions may be products of subnational governmental organizations. Organizational politics emphasizes the standard operating procedures and processes of an organization. Decisions arising from organizational processes depend heavily on precedents; major changes in policy are unlikely. Conflicts can occur when different subgroups within the organization have different goals and procedures. Often those different goals have been strongly influenced by particular interest groups or NGO
Organizations go from Subunits → Standard operating procedures → Decision |
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What are The Bureaucratic Model?
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Bureaucratic politics, occurs among members of the bureaucracy representing different interests. Descisions determ ined by bureaucratic politics flow from the push and pull, or tug-of-war, among these departments, groups, or individuals. In both this policial scenario, the ultimate decision depends on the relative strength of the individual bureaucratic players or the organizations they represent.
Liberals especially turn to this model of decision-making behavior in their analyses because for them the state is only the playing field; the actors are the competing interests in bureaucracies and organizations.
Bureaucracies go from Subgroups and Individuals → Bargaining based on different interests → Decision. |
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What is the Pluralist Model?
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Attributes decisions to bargaining conducted among domestic sources – the public, interest groups, mass movements, and multinational corporations. In noncrisis situations and on particullar issues, especially economic ones, societal groups may play very important roles. No one doubts the power of the rice farmer lobbies in both Japan and South Korea in preventing the importation of cheap, U.S. grown rice. No one denies the power of U.S. shoe manufacturers in supporting restrictions on the importation of Brazilian-made shoes into the United States, despite U.S. governmental initiatives to allow imports of products from developing countries.
Pluralist model of decision-making go through Interest groups, Multinational corporations, Pubic opinion, Mass movements to → State to → Decision. |
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What is the liberal perspective on state power and policy?
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Nature of state power: Multiple power sources; tangible and intangible sources Using state power: Broad range of power techniques; preference for noncoercive alternatives How foreign policy is made: Bureaucratic/organizational and pluralist models of decision making Determinants of foreign policy: Largely domestic determinants. |
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What is the radical perspective on state power and policy?
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Nature of state power: Economic power organized around clases Using state power: Weak states have few instruments of power How foreign policy is made: States have no real choices; decisions dictated by economic capitalist elites. Determinants of foreign policy: Largely external determinants; co-opted internal elements. |
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What is the constructivist perspective on state power and policy? |
Nature of state power: Power subject to norm socialization Using state power: Power is tool of elites for socializing societies through norms How foreign policy is made: Decisions based on norms that regulate policy sector Determinants of foreign policy: External determinants in combination with domestic civil society.
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What different challenges to the state are there?
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Globalization-political, economic, cultural – Undermines state sovereignty; interferes with state exercise of power; exacerbated by the rise of new media. Transnational religious and ideological movements – Seek loyalty and commitment of individuals and groups beyond the state; change state behaviour on a specific problem or issue. Ethnonational movements – seek own state; attempt to replace current government with one representing the interests of the movements Transnational crime – Challenges state authority Failed states – Threaten lives of persons within states and security of other states in international system. |
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When does a individual leader affect the course of events?
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When political institutions are unstable, young, in crisis, collapsed. When institutional constraints are limited. When the issue or situation is peripheral, unusual, ambiguous.
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What psychological mechanisms is there to process information?
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Cognitive Consistency, Evoked set, Mirror Image, Groupthink, Satisficing.
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What is the realist view on the individual?
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Foreign policy elites: Constrained by anarchic international system and national interests Private individuals: Actions of private individuals have effect only in aggregate, as reflected in national interest. Mass publics: Actions may be reflected in national interest.
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What is the liberal/neoliberal institutionalism view on the individual?
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Foreign policy elites: Significant impact on international relations through choices made and personality factors. Private individuals: Secondary role, but may be involved in track-two diplomacy and may fund important initiatives. Mass publics: May affect international relations through mass actions that pressure state decision makers. |
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What is the radicalism/dependency theory view on the individual?
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Foreign policy elites: Constrained by international capitalist system Private individuals: Individual capitalist may be influental Mass publics: Agents of potential revolutionary change.
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What is the constructivism view on the individual?
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Foreign policy elites: Shape popular understanding and incorporation of events and processes. Private individuals: Actions of individuals less important than beliefs Mass publics: Agents of potentional change through discourse.
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What is functionalism?
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War is caused by economic deprivation. Economic disparity cannot be solved in a system of independent states New functional units should be created to solve specific economic problems. People and groups will develop habits of cooperation, which wiwll spill over from economic cooperation to political cooperation. In the long run, economic disparities will lessen and war will be eliminated. |
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What is collective goods?
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The common grazing area. The grazing area is available to all members of the group, regardless of individual contribution. The use of collective goods involves activities and choices that are interdependent. Decisions by one state have affects for other states – that is, states can suffer unanticipated negative consequences as a result of the actions of others. Collective goods are available to all members of a group regardless of individual contributions. Some activities of states involve the provision of collective goods. Groups need to devise strategies to overcome problems of collective goods caused by the negative consequences of the ations of others – the “tradegy of the commons”. Strategies include coercion, altering preferences by offering incentives, and altering the size of the group. |
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What big IGO:s are there?
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The United Nations, The European Union
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What are NGO?
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Nongovernmental Organizations. Nonstate actors include nongovernmental organizations, transnational networks, foundations, and multinational corporations. NGO:s are generally private, voluntary organizations whose members are individuals or associations that come together to achieve a common purpose, often oriented to a public good. |
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What is the liberalist view of international organizations and law?
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intergovernmental organizations - important independent actors for collective action. international law - Key source of order in the international system; states comply because law ensures order. Nongovernmental organizations - Increasingly key actors that represent different interests and facilitate collective action. |
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What is the realist view of international organization and law?
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Intergovernmental organizations - Skeptical of their ability to engage in collective action. International law - Acknowledges that international law creates some order, but stresses that states comply only when it is in their self interest; states prefer self-help. Nongovernmental organizations - Not independent actors; power belongs to states; any NGOs power is derived from states. |
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What is the radical view of international organization and law?
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Intergovernmental organizations - Serve interests of powerful states; biased against weak states and the unrepresented. International law - Skeptical because origins of law are in Western capitalist tradition; international law only reaffirms claims of the powerful. Nongovernmental organizations - Represent dominant economic interests; unlikely to effect major political or econmic change. |
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What is the constructivist view of international organization and law?
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Intergovernmental organizations - Both IGOs and NGOs can be norm entrepreneurs and socialize actors, which may change state behavior. International law - Law reflects changing norms; shapes state expectations and behavior. Nongovernmental organizations - Both IGOs and NGOs may lead to dysfunctional behavior, but may also represent new ideas and norms. |
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What defines a war?
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A war demands organized, deliberate violence by an identifiable political authority. Wars are relatively more lethal than other forms of organized violence. Pogroms, bombings and massacres are deliberate and organized but generaly not sufficiently lethal to count as war.To count as a war, organized and deliberate violence by an established political authority must result in at east 1000 deaths in a calendaryear. Both sides must have some real capacity to harm each other, although that capacity need not be equal on both sides. War is an organized and deliberate political act by an established political authority. |
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What causes a war?
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On an individual level(first image): Aggressive characteristics of leaders, Misperceptions by leaders, Communication failures. On a state/society level(second image): Liberal capitalst states, according to radicals. Nonliberal/nondemocratic states, according to liberals. Domestic politics, scapegoating. Struggle between groups for economic resources. Ehtnonational challengers. On a international system level(third image): Anarchy, Power trantions, Aggressiveness of the international capitalist class. |
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How can we categorize wars?
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Interstate war - Wars that take place between sovereign states. Intrastate war - Wars that take plae within states. Total war - Armed conflicts involving massive loss of life and widespread destruction, usually with many participants, including multiple major powers. These wars are fought to conquer and occupy enemy terrotory or to take over the government and or to control the economic resources of an opponent or over conflicts of ideas (communism vs capitalism) or religion. Decision makers utilize all available national resources - conscripted labor; indiscriminate weapons of warfare; economic, diplomatic, and natural resources - in order to force the unconditional surrender of their opponents. In total war, opposing civilian casualties are accepted or even deliberately sought in pursuit of victory. Limited war - In limited wars, because the aims of war are relatively modest, not all available armaments are unleashed. In these two cases, conventional weapons of warfare were used - tanks, foot soldiers, aircraft, and missiles. But despite their availability, nuclear weapons were never deployed. Conventional war - Conventional wars are won or lost when the warriors of one group, or their leaders, acknowledge defeat following a clash of arms. Unconventional warness -It is distinguished in general by a willingness to ignore conventions of war, whether by flouting restrictions on legitimate targets of violence or by refusing to accept the traditional outcomes of battles - say, the destruction of a regular army, loss of a capital, or capture of a national leader - as an indicator of defeat. |
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How can wars be fought?
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Conventional war, weapons of mass destruction, unconventional warness, terrorism.
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What defines terrorism?
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It is political in nature or intent. Perpetrators are nonstate actors. Targets are noncombatants, such as political figures, bureaucrats, or innocent bystanders.
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What is polarity?
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3 types of system polarity according to realists: This is ways to interact in international system: Multipolarity international system – At least five different states is interacting in some way. Bipolarity international system – Two states are interacting. (for example the cold war between United states and Soviet Union) Hegemony(unipolar) international system – one state or many in cooperation, commands influence on the others. (For example USA have influence on all other countries, or U.S hegemony have influence on EU) |
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In what three ways can we see the internatinal system according to Liberals?
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1. international system as a process (A process where multiple interactions occur among different parties and where various actors learn from the interaction.) 2. International system can be seen as an international society (Various actors communicate, they consent to common rules and institutions, recognize common interests) 3. That international system is anarchic (Neoliberal institutionalist view. Each individual state acts in its own self-interest) |
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What is statepower?
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- Ability to influence - control outcomes, produce results - power againtst other states - power against other actors in the International system. All 4 theories: all of them acknowledge importance of power. They also agree that power is multidimensional, dynamic and situational.
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What are power potential?
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Natural sources of power - Geography, Natural resources, population Tangible sources of power - Industrial development, Level of infrastructure, Characteristics of military Intangible sources of power - National image, Public support, Leadership
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Why have states chosen to organize collectively?
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Liberalism answer: Within the framework of institutions and rules, cooperation is possible Neliberal institutionalism: Continuous interaction among states provides motivation for them to create internatiional organizations, which, in turn: - Moderate state behavior - Provide framework for interaction - Monitoring and punishing uncooperative states - Facilitate transparency |
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What is funktionalism?
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Technical, non-political issues where states are not the best units for problem resolution (functionalism) = a theory of thinking. - A working peace system. - War is caused by economic deprivation. - Economic disparity cannot be solved in a system of independent states. - New functional units should be created to solve specific economic problems. - People will develop habits of cooperation, which will spill over from economic cooperation to political cooperation. - In the long run, economic disparities will lessen and war will be eliminated |
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What is collective goods?
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“tragedy of the commons” → an economics theory by Garret Hardin: individuals are acting independently and rationally according to each one's self-interest, they behave contrary to the whole group's long-term best interests by depleting some common resource. Strategies: Coercion Chaning preferences Altering group size to ensure alliance |
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What are the Functions and roles of NGO's?
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- Advocates for specific policies - Alternative channel for political participation - Mobilize mass publics - Distribute aid and critical assistance - Monitors of norms and state practices
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The central UN organs (principal organs of the United Nations) comprises of six major bodies. Name four of the six major bodies |
The Security Council, The general Assembly, Economic and Social council, Trusteeship council. |
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Peacekeeping operations fall into two types. What are the two types? |
Traditional peacekeeping operations(activities primarily address interstate conflict.), Complex peacekeeping operations(activities respond to civil war and ethnonationalist conflicts within states that may not have requested UN assistance.)
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According to liberal economic theory, what is meant by comparative advantage? |
The theory of comparative advantage is an economic theory about the potential gains from trade for individuals, firms, or nations that arise from differences in their factor endowments or technological progress.
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Describe briefly what is meant by a diversionary war |
Capitalist states spend not only on consumer goods but also on the military, leading inevitably to arms races and eventually war. Another link points to leaders who resort to external conflict in order to divert public attention from domestic economic crises, corruption, or scandal. Such a conflict is called a diversionary war and is likely to provide internal cohesion, at least in the short run.
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What is meant with the strategy of compellence? |
The use of force – Force and threat of force. Central to realist thinking. With the strategy of compellence, a state tries, by threatening to use force, to get another state to do something or to undo an act that it has undertaken.
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The course literature presents two conceptual perspectives which help us to think about the suite of environmental issues. What are these conceptual perspectives? |
The notion of collective goods and Sustainability |
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What are the deterrence theory? |
Decision makers are rational. The threat of mutual destruction from warfare is great. Alternatives to war are available.
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What are the collective security theory? |
Wars are caused by aggressive states Aggressors must be stopped. Aggressors are easily identified. Aggressors are always wrong. Aggressors will be deterred from aggression by the threat of a collective response.
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Which four kinds of war do we have? |
Interstate wars: Between states, as they have recognizable leadership and locations and formal militaries.
Intrastate wars:
Between factions within a state over control of territory or institutions; many have international repercussions; can last decades; high human costs.
Total war:
Policy option. Massive loss of life, widespread destruction; many participants, including multiple powers; all available weapons utilized; civilians and military targeted. Reasons to go to total war: Territory you want to take over a government conflicts of ideas religion economy
Limited war:
may be limited by goals pursued, type of weapons used, amount of resources used; targets
A war can start as a limited war and then become a total war.
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What is old and new wars? |
During last decades of the 20th century, a new type of organized violence developed which is one aspect of the current globalized era -> new war. New wars: globalization impacted war (identity funding of wars, ITC, tactics) New wars characterized by ethnic cleansing, identity politics and endemic violence. Old wars: definition of wars took shape in Europe; underwent several phases; every society has its characteristic of this war. |
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What causes a war? |
Individual reasons: realism and liberalism causes of war:
Personal characteristics of leadership Misperceptions Communications failures Characteristics of the masses St augustine – Act of self preservation Niebuhr – War is inherent to humans War as the unusual event
State and Society: Liberalism and radicals
Struggles over internal structures and characteristics of states cause war Liberals – democracy restrains leaders, provides outlets for opposing viewpoint. Disagreement about effect of capitalist structure(between radicals and liberalists) Liberals say those states avert war, prefer trade Radicals say this leads to competition among social groups, stagnation, collapse, or the search for external markets in diversionary war.
International system: realism and radicalism
Realists War is natural, inevitable and immutable feature of interstate politics Hobbes: anarchic system compared to “state of nature”, hence a “state of war” Anarchic international system → war States must protect themselves (state security by accumulating military and economic power) a states security makes other state less secure (security dilemma) no final arbiter of disputes or competing claims of self-determination: no internationally legitimized arbiter → auathority is relegated to states themselves (most powerful ones) Realists (power transition theory) – war is caused by states challenging internatonal herachy due to Changing state capabilites Changing distribution of power among states. Radicals International system structure is responsible for war Dominant capitalist states want to expand economically Waging war with capitalist states over control of natural resources and labor markets Waging war with other capitalist states over control of developing regions.
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How can we fight a war? |
Conventional warfare Weapons: swords and shields, guns, cannons, infantry, tanks, navy forces, air forces. Utilized to defeat the enemy on the territorial battlefield Key aspect: destructive effects can be limited in time and space; precise targeting; easily available. Problems: chemical weapons; indiscriminate damage on large scale possible (harm of noncombatants).
Weapons of mass destruction (WMD)
Nuclear, chemical, biological Key factor: destructive effects of WMD by their nature cannot be limited to time and space. Problems: radiation, indiscriminate
Unconventional warfare (ignore traditional conventions of being in war)
Guerilla warfare – Spanish “small war”; small group of combatants, (Civilians; irregulars) use military tactics and mobility to fight larger, less mobile traditional military. revolutionary guerilla warfare – means to revolutionary triumph.
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What is assymetric warfare? |
between parties of unequal strength; weaker party seeks to neutrilize opponent strength by exploiting weaknesses.
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What elements of terrorism is there? |
Act is political by nature or intent Committed by non-state actors Combatant or non-combatant targets Use unconventional means at unpredictable places and intervals.
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What responses do we have to terrorism? |
Just war tradition - Jus ad bellum Just conditions for going into war Just cause: self-defense, defense of others, massive violation of human rights Declaration of intent by appropriate authority have intentions of ending abuses and establishing a just peace Must have exhausted all other alternatives forces must be removed quickly after objectives are achieved.
Just conduct in war Distinguish between combatants and noncombatants Noncombatants protected from harm Violence proportionate to ends Undue human suffering avoided Individual responsibility for actions taken. |
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Is there a posibility to transcend war? |
Realist answer: War can be managed but never eliminated due to human nature. States exist in an anarchic system, with no overarching authority to provide security or settle disputes States are thus insecure and must rely on self help to find security Insecurity can lead to the security dilemma.
Liberal answer: Anarchy is a structural restraint States can learn to cooperate because of self interest in the benefits of peace, essetially good states, and bad.
International institutions act as cooperation enablers of economic and other interaction between states by reducing transition costs and increasing cheating costs
Is war inevitable? Benefits of cooperation will push more states to become democratic more liberal , democratic state =more peace Democracy peace theory
Constructivist answer: much of perceived world is socially constructed, threat war not a necessary, natural or inevitable feature of interstate politics Instead: actors have been socialized to understand key features of interstate politis as threatening If differently socialized, then different outcomes, (=different possibilities to reduce war, f.i. cooperation) |
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In which way can you conceptualize human rights? |
First-generation HR: Rights that an individual possesses and that the state cannot take away. These are rights to free speech, free religion... Second-generation HR: Economic, social, material right. The state has the obligate to provide some things for people... Third-generation HR: rights for specific groups (women, children, disabled) and ethnic or indigenous minorities. |
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What does it mean that human rights are universality? |
Principle of universality of human rights is the cornerstone of international human rights law Universal = we consider all members of the species homo sapiens, human beings, as holders of HR. Universality vs. cultural relativism |
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What does cultural relativism mean? |
a substantive normative doctrine that demands respect for cultural differences; cultures differ across time and space Idea that rights are culturally determined: henve, different rights are relevant in different cultural settings. |
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What is the enforcement of human rights? |
States, IGOs and NGOs have contributed and helped to set and clarify human rights standards and norms (especially during last 50 years). States: traditionally argued that this is primarily their sovereign privilege that is limited only by a states own constitution. During 20th century: mass communication; spread of information about how countries/governments treat or mistreat their populations realization that this can affect the larger global community. Increasing role and importance of other actors (IGOs, NGOs..)
Some kinds of international action now acceptable Some in international community now agree it has responsibility or obligation to protect individuals. Example: dealing with genocide in 1970s (Cambodia). But problem of building international will to act remains. |
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What can the international community actually do? |
What can IGOs/NGOs do for promoting and encouraging HR standards? Set human rights standards (United Nations) Monitoring standards, establish complaint procedures, compile reports on state behavior, investigate alleged violations, promote education about human rights (United Nations, NGOs) monitor elections; provide focal point via UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Enforce standards through embargoes, sanctions, armed force (UN, states..) |
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What are the problems with enforcement? |
States signature on treaties is no guarantee of willingness or ability to enforce treaty provisions Monitoring via self-reporting presumes willingness to comply and be transparent Economic embargoes may not achieve human rights policy change and may hurt those whom embargoes are intended to help. Military action may cause unintended casualties. |
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Which humanitarian interventions are there? |
Just war tradition: Military intervention by states or the international community may be justified or even obligatory to alleviate massive violations of HR. Contradicts directly main element of Westphalian tradition (respect for state sovereignty) Military intervention on behalf of humanitarian causes was applied selectively throughtout history. End of WW2: understanding that all human beings need protection and that states have an obligation to intervene.
Responsibility to protect: All human beings, not just particular groups, need protection States have an obligation to protected1990s: after humanitarian crises in Somalia and Rwanda R2P gained even greater prominence. R2P: in the case of massive violation of HR and when domestic avenues for redress have been exhausted, and actions by other states might reasonably end the abuse, states have a responsibility to interfere.....
Pro intervention: External actors have both the right and the duty to intervene In globalized world, massive HR violations affect global community (interconnectedness) Intervention is about protecting and enforcing the collective will of international society (customary right)
Contra intervention: “who” can legitimately authorize intervention and “in what circumstances”? Assumption of an international society comprising a plurality of diverse communities, each with different ideas of the best way to live. Unauthorized humanitarian intervention ->potential abuse Humanitarian intervention as dangerous affront to core principle of self-determination of states. |
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What are the traditional and complex peacekeeping? |
Traditional peacekeeping: Multilateral institutions (such as the UN) seek to contain conflicts between two states through third-party military forces. Ad hoc military units: have been used to prevent the escalation of conflicts; to keep warring parties apart until disputes are settled. Forces are drawn from the armed forces of nonpermanent members of UN Security Council; operate under UN auspices. Tasks: supervision of armistices, trying to maintain cease-fires, physically interposing themselves in a buffer zone between warring parties.
Complex peacekeeping: Respond to civil wars, ethno-national conflicts, and domestic unrest Disputants may not have requested UN assistance Use of military and civilian personnel (including those drawn from security council) Activities include: Verifying troop withdrawals Separating warring factions Conducting and supervising election Implementing human rights guarantees supplying humanitarian aid Helping civil administration maintain law and order. |
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Which ways are there to manage security? |
Realist – balance of power Reliance on force or threat of force to manage power Balance of power most important technique for managing security; compatible with human nature and that of the state. States make rational and calculated evaluations of the costs and benefits of particular policies that determine the states role in a balance of power. Operates on both international and regional levels Major limitation: inability to manage security....
Realist – deterrence Assumptions of deterrence: decision-makers are rational the threat of mutual destruction from warfare is great alternative to war are available
liberalist - collective security wars are caused by aggressive states aggressors must be stopped aggressors are easil identified aggressors are always morally wrong. Aggressors know ahead of time that the international community will act against them. Weaknesses of collective security: there is lack of commitment by some nations to act in concert never works against permanent members of UN security concil due to veto power difficulty of identifying aggressors its difficult to determine whether the aggressors are always wrong
Liberals arms control/disarmament assumptions fewer weapons means greater security regulate arms proliferation arm control or reduce amount of arms and types of weapons, disarmament cost of security dilemma are reduced Major agreements include bilateral, regional, and global treaties covering conventional, nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. |
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What are human security? |
Economic and social well-being Literacy Adequate health care clean environment General personal safety. |
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What is containerization? |
Transport/shipment of goods in sealed, locked, and standardized containers Over 90% of the worlds non-bulk cargo. Largest ships handle over 15,000 containers Computer miniaturization reduced shipping costs → cheaper for manufacturers to hire foreign labor. 1980s profit potential through exporting production and assembly abroad Costly domestic labor and environmental regulations were avoided Severe harm to air and water quality through ongoing process of exporting production to developing countries From business perspective: these harms and costs of a compromised environment can be diffused worldwide. --Ideal vehicle for smuggling (pets, plants, narcotics, nuclear devices, humans) Human Cargo; spreading of communicable diseases. |
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what new transnational issues are there? |
Communicable diseases Environmental issues Human Rights Transnational crime Economic globalization |
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What is collective goods? |
An environmental issue. need to achieve shared benefits by overcoming conflicting interests; Hardin's concept of the commons Available to all members of a group, regardless of individual contributions Collective goods: ocean, lands, → sustainable natural environment is a collective good Tragedy of the commons: all members have access, how can the commons be shared and managed; conflicting interests, bargaining about how to distribute the costs of providing that good. Example: Worlds major fisheries in international waters.
Garrett Hardin: The Tragedy of the Commons Pertains to goods in the “common grazing area” The problem: As each individual acts rationally to maximize own gain, the collectivity suffers, and eventually all individuals suffer.
Solutions include: Use of coercion Changing preferences; example: by offering positive incentives to refrain from engaging in an activity Altering group size to ensure compliance. |
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What is sustainability? |
An environmental issue. Sustainable development An approach to economic development that incrporates concern for renewable resources and the environmentalPolicies that promote change that neither damages the environment nor depletes finite resources Example: EU sustainable Development Strategy in 2009: “Sustainable development remains a fundamental objective of the EU..” “The Eus integrated climate and energy policy and an integrated approach to the sustainable management of natural resources, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services and sustainable production and consuption are among the drivers for achieving objectives under both the SDS and the Lisbon strategy. |
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What is transnational crime? |
Human trafficking; criminal profit motive Sex trafficking: much more serious and widespread after end of CW. Highly organized and profitable transnational criminal networks; specialized in “delivering goods” to clients Prohibited and illegal practice but persists due to government corruption, lax border controls, desire to keep labor costs low, poverty, high profitability of sex trade Est. 600,000-1,75 mil women, girls and boys trafficked annually for sex trade.
Narcotrafficking: transportation of large quantities of narcotics like heroin, cocain, across borders. UN numbers: Colombia, Peru, Bolivia produce an estimated 1000 tones of cocaine annually; shipped to 10 million users in US and Europe. Colombia and Mexico supply most demand of heroine; 1,3 million users in north America. European market for cocaine rapidly growing. New trafficking route to Europe via West Africa has implications for Venezuela and Southern Caribbean states. 1970s: US president Nixon declares; war on drugs. Profits recycled into arms purchases, intelligence, and bribes for terrorist organizations. Harm not restricted; much wider influence. Due to low cost of shipping, cultivation in one region easily replaced in another region if crops eradicated. |
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What is the impact of transnational issues? |
On international bargaining: more policy trade-offs and greater complexity
On international conflict: May increase at international and sub-state levels as issues are themselves sources of conflict.
On state sovereignty: Traditional notion challenged; need re conceptualization.
On study of international relations: Core assumptions of theories jeopardized, Theories modified and broadened |
