Intercultural Communication Final

Front 1

The results demonstrate that the reading and math achievement of ---------exceed that of Hispanic Americans, Black Americans, and
American Indians.

Back 1

White
Americans and Asian Americans

Front 2

Since 1992, the percentage of students meeting basic standards in reading has
increased by 5-10 points in all groups (data for American Indians was not available in 1992).
Even more impressive, the percentage of students meeting basic standards in math has increased
30-43 points for 4th graders and 20-30 points for 8th graders. For example, ----% of African
American 4th graders met standards in 1992, and in 2005 the percentage was --%.

Back 2

17

60

Front 3

Dropout rates are another indicator of educational attainment (or lack thereof) in
secondary school. According to Education Week Magazine, the average graduate rate for all
students who entered in the 9th grade in 2001 (graduating in 2004) was ----.

Back 3

70%

Front 4

Unfortunately,
graduation rates indicate significant disparities. About------- of White and Asian
American students graduating from high school and only about half of African American,
Hispanic American, and American Indian students graduated in the same time period

Back 4

three quarters

Front 5

At the ----------, the first examination is to determine whether students of all
racial/ethnic groups are attending college at the same rate. Using Figure 7.1 and Table 7.1, but
removing the unknown and international students, Table 7.2 directly compares the enrollment in
elementary/secondary education and that of postsecondary education. While the table compares
two different years (2002 to 2004), it appears that White and Asian Americans are
overrepresented at the postsecondary level, and African Americans, Hispanic Americans, and
American Indians are underrepresented.

Back 5

postsecondary level

Front 6

what is the pipeline problem?

Back 6

that is, students
from certain groups are not well represented at the college ranks, and thus they will be
underrepresented in jobs that require college degrees

Front 7

what is the correlation between masters/bachleor's degrees

Back 7

we can see that, for bachelor’s and master’s degrees, White Americans,
Asian Americans, and international students are overrepresented--and other groups are
underrepresented--based on the numbers of students who enroll in college

Front 8

who are overrepresented in the doctoral field besides asians and whites?

Back 8

men and international people

Front 9

who has a lower 6-year graduation rate than average.

Back 9

men, African Americans, Hispanic Americans, and American
Indians

Front 10

men have --------
rates of success in college than women

Back 10

lower

Front 11

what are the reasons for educational disparities?

Back 11

socioeconomic status, finance of schools, bureaucracy of schools, and education
level of parents

Front 12

what is classroom management?

Back 12

Classroom management is “a broad set of teaching behaviors through which the teacher
shapes and maintains learning conditions that facilitate effective and efficient instruction
resulting in a learning community

Front 13

what are the four behaviors of classroom management?

Back 13

immediacy

communicating expectations

engaging and culturally appropriate content

interacting with parents.

Front 14

what is the immediacy classroom management style?

Back 14

Immediacy is the extent to which communication behaviors enhance closeness and
reduce physical and/or psychological distance between communicators (Mehrabian, 1969).
Immediacy includes verbal and nonverbal behaviors such as using personal examples, using
humor, addressing students by name, having conversations with students before/after class,
smiling at students, gesturing while talking, and moving around the class

Front 15

what are the two types of immediacy is classroom management?

Back 15

instructional

relational

Front 16

what is instructional immediacy?

Back 16

Instructional immediacy focuses on communication
behaviors associated with classroom instruction and direct learning

Front 17

what is relational immediacy?

Back 17

Relational immediacy
focuses on communication behaviors that enhance the psychological closeness between teacher
and student.

Front 18

what is personal immediacy

Back 18

Personal immediacy focuses on communication behaviors related to the moral and
ethical behavior of the teacher.

Front 19

Numerous
studies consistently demonstrate that teacher immediacy is ------- related to student perceived
affective and/or cognitive learning in the classrooms in U. S. and other cultures such as China,
Japan, Germany, Australia, Finland, China, and France

Back 19

positively

Front 20

what is communicating expectations?

Back 20

The expectations teachers have of students shape a variety of classroom behaviors, but
especially student performance

Front 21

study of 1,572 college students in the U.S. found that
students’ motivation to work was strongly influenced by whether students perceived that their
instructors were concerned about them personally (Wilson, 2006). Since motivation is related to
learning, teachers’ attitudes are critical for ----------

Back 21

student success.

Front 22

For example, a teacher
might not call on a third grader who speaks English as a second language because he fears that
the student will be embarrassed. A teacher might grade a student’s paper more easily or simply
pass him so the student is not left behind (called social promotion). A teacher can dismiss points
made by a student in class rather than use the points to further discussion. The key is for teachers
to examine their instructional practices to make sure they are not setting low standards for any
student’s work.


what is this an example of?

Back 22

communicating expectations

Front 23

n one study,
women reminded of gender stereotypes about math performance had low expectations of their
performance on a standardized math test (Smith, 2006). Another study found that middle school
girls exhibit performance deficit when they are led to believe a task measures math skills
(Huguet & Regner, 2007). However, this stereotyped effect is reversed under certain conditions.
Girls with access to positive role models (girls who are high math achievers) (Huguet & Regner,
19
2007) or who complete a task about shared academic characteristics between men and women
(Rosenthal et al., 2007) reduce the effect of the stereotype and perform at levels equal to boys. In
contrast, girls who work alone or work with boys or low performing goals have low performance
(and expectations about performance (Huguet & Regner, 2007).

what is this an example of

Back 23

communicating expectations

Front 24

or example, if reading assignments
only focus on works written by White, European scholars, most minority students will not feel
engaged with the material.

what is this associated with?

Back 24

one of the classroom management behaviors:

engaging in culturally appropriate conten

Front 25

Students reported several
20
barriers to participating in such discussions:


related to?

Back 25

a) teachers who do not truly value participation; b)
teachers who display discomfort in talking about racism; c) teachers who are threatened by
students’ knowledge; d) gaps in experiences and knowledge among students of color and White
students; and e) tension and disagreements.


engaging in culturally approppriate conent

Front 26

The same study identified several strategies for
addressing racism in the classroom:

Back 26

a) teacher laying out clear parameters in advance of the
discussion; b) teacher modeling diversity through the structure and content of the class; c)
teacher being aware of own cultural biases, d) students being motivated to learn; and e) student
feeling safe and challenged.


engaging in culturally appropriate content

Front 27

What is the final behavior of classroom management?

Back 27

interacting parents

Front 28

Students with parents who are engaged in their child’s
education performed better than students with -------

Back 28

unengaged parents

Front 29

what is cooperative learning?

Back 29

focuses on personal reflection, subjective reactions, consciousness-raising, and
cooperative performance.

Front 30

what is individual learning?

Back 30

focuses on critical thinking, objective
observation, abstract analysis, and individual performance.

Front 31

what are the two types of learning styles?

Back 31

cooperative and individual

Front 32

what is the relation to learning styles and culture?

Back 32

his type of
learning is closely connected to cultural individualism and collectivism (Chapter 2). One study
examined learning preferences in nearly 200 students in Australia (Ramburuth & McCormick,
2001). The authors found that Asian international students (collectivistic) preferred collaborative
and group learning opportunities more than Australian (individualistic) students. Similar
25
differences in racial and ethnic groups within the U.S. have been demonstrated. Specifically,
elementary students of color generally have strong preferences for collaborative learning as this
is how their family socialization has progressed (Gaitin, 2006). This difference may explain
some of the underachievement in certain minority groups as their learning preferences do not
match that of mainstream classrooms.

Front 33

what are the two types of peer-to-peer communication?

Back 33

Social support

Front 34

what is social support?

Back 34

Social support
is a part of relationships in which individuals provide aid, assistance, and comfort to others
(Albrecht, Burleson, & Goldsmith, 1994; Heaney & Israel, 2002). Social support helps students
to cope with the stress of learning and is associated with perceived learning (Holmes, 2005;
Mortenson, 2006). Social support is also important for helping international students and
students of color coping in multicultural environments

Front 35

Identify two types of peer-to-peer communication behaviors that are associated with disparities in educational outcomes

Back 35

The educational outcome disparities can be explained by the two
facts: that peer support for students of color is more likely to be negative than for White
American students (see the following box for a study of these factors) and that intercultural
conflict in schools has a greater frequency and impact on students of color than White American
students

Front 36

what is an orgnanization?

Back 36

An organization is composed of a social collectivity (that is, a group of people) who coordinate
their actions to achieve common goals.

Front 37

The coordinated activities are structured, usually by
dividing tasks and creating a reporting system, and are located within a larger ---------

Back 37

organizational environment

Front 38

Organizations are often described as ----- with interlocking layers of people and
functions.

Back 38

systems

Front 39

what is a system?

Back 39

A system is a set of component parts that have interdependent relationships (Homans,
1950). An organization is a system with inputs, processes, and outcomes where the inputs
influence the processes and the processes influence the outcomes

Front 40

what is the system challenged by?

Back 40

the system is characterized by various layers of hierarchy.

Front 41

This hierarchy
within the organization includes such layers as...

Back 41

individual members, supervisor-subordinate
relationships, work groups, and organizational or system wide processes

Front 42

One of the most common points about cultural diversity in the workplace is whether it is
a .....

Back 42

benefit and/or a challenge to the organization.

Front 43

what are the three major topics that affect cultural diversity in the workplace?

Back 43

First, cultural diversity adds value to an
organization and creates a competitive advantage. Second, cultural diversity is a potential barrier
to effective process and output. Third, cultural diversity can do both, but generally problems
occur because the analysis of diversity issues is poor.

Front 44

what is the value added theory of cultural diversity in the workplace?

Back 44

The value added perspective assumes that diversity should provide a net benefit and thus
a competitive advantage for organization. The assumption is
that different ideas, perspectives, and communication patterns will provide the organization with
a larger talent pool that can create and market products and services to diverse audiences. These
Oetzel—Ch. 8 9
advantages are seen in four areas: problem-solving, creativity, flexibility, and marketing (Cox,
2001).

Front 45

Cultural diversity enriches problem-solving capabilities

true or false

Back 45

true

Front 46

Creativity involves a process of taking in new ideas and accepting the first ones to mind.

true or flase

Back 46

false

Front 47

Cultural
diversity cannot enhance flexibility by changing the cognitive structure of the organization.

true or false

Back 47

false

Front 48

Marketing products and services is critical to organizational survival. Many companies
now market products around the world and need to know the buying patterns of people in other
cultures since cultural identities impact consumer spending.


true or false

Back 48

true

Front 49

what are the three ways that cultural diversity can help marketing?

Back 49

First, being a strong proponent of cultural diversity is a public relations advantage. Second,
marketing to a diverse audience requires people who understand and can create messages that
Oetzel—Ch. 8 11
relate to various cultures. People from these cultures are an excellent source for organizations.
Third, culturally diverse organizations provide the opportunity to enhance customer relations
because the organization looks like the society.

Front 50

what is process difficulty?

Back 50

Process difficulty is communication processes that potentially
interfere with performance and include high levels of conflict and tension, power struggles, lack
of cooperation, lack of respect for group members, inconsistent norms/rules, and inequality in
Oetzel—Ch. 8 12
turn taking (Oetzel et al., 2001). Essentially, groups or organizations that have difficulty
interacting will have difficulty in doing coordinated work to perform well.

Front 51

Explain the benefits and challenges of cultural diversity in the workplace and why organizations have difficulty analyzing diversity problems.

Back 51

Most organizations do not need to be sold on the benefits of diversity for their
organization. Nor do they need to be told about the potential problems. They are generally aware
of both although, certainly, some think diversity is simply political correctness that will not go
away. I like to think that most organizations and people really want to have an integrated and
inclusive society and workplace. Why then do we have so many inequities in the workplace, and
companies (like ABC in the opening story) have trouble recruiting and retaining diverse
workforces? Taylor Cox, a diversity expert at the University of Michigan, has identified three
problems that organizations face when analyzing diversity issues: misdiagnosing problems,
arriving at the wrong solution, and failing to understand the learning curve of individuals (Cox,
2001).

Front 52

Explain the bottom-up effects in the workplace.

Back 52

Research examining the impact of the workplace on society as a whole is limited.
However, the workplace does have a significant impact on society as a whole in that work is a
prominent fixture of society. In a market economy, those organizations that innovate and are
successful get copied. These successful organizations are seen as benchmarks for others to
compare with and try to emulate. Fortune magazine has an annual list of the “50 best companies
for Asian, Blacks, and Hispanics” (notice the absence of American Indians in this article, which
speaks to the invisibility of this group in corporate America). These companies receive a public
relations boost from this survey, but they also demonstrate to societal institutions and
governmental agencies potential ways to embrace diversity and be successful. However, while
much discussion exists about the influence of such performance and lists, the extent to which this
performance impacts other companies and society in general is not well known.

Front 53

Explain the top-down effects of the workplace.

Back 53

Organizational culture has a strong impact on individual behavior (Cox, 2001). If the
prevailing culture encourages valuing and embracing diversity, the vast majority of individuals
will perpetuate this attitude. In contrast, if the organization discourages diversity, individuals
tend to do the same. These effects are generally subtle and not overt. For example, institutional
racism occurs when the system and practices become so imbedded in organizational culture that
they are accepted and treated as unquestioned assumptions. These systems and practices are
usually presented with comments such as “that’s how we do things around here” and “that is our
tradition.” Tradition and history are important, but they also must be questioned and understood.
For example, if the tradition is only to promote engineers to be managers, then we are excluding
people with different work specializations and possibly even members of underrepresented
groups because fewer people from underrepresented groups are in the engineering ranks than in
other specializations. This exclusion does not seem pertinent to the work skills needed to be a
manager, which involves administration and leadership skills that are not limited to engineers.

Front 54

On the other hand, other employees, who tended to be --------, felt muted by the organization; that is, the organizational culture
encouraged their silence, and the employees felt that they would not be able to address their
abuse in any reasonable way. The reasons they were muted was because their stories were
repeatedly silenced over time (for example, bosses did not believe them) or through ambiguous
policies that did not allow for redress. In both types of muting, individual behavior is being
shaped by an organizational culture that encourages certain employees to express a voice while
discouraging others from the same voice.

Back 54

women, ethnic minorities, or lower
portions of the hierarchy

Front 55

The workplace is probably the most regulated setting when it comes to prohibiting
discrimination. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC, 2007) specifies
the following laws:

T
E
A
T
C

Back 55

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits employment
discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin;
• Equal Pay Act of 1963, which protects men and women who perform
substantially equal work in the same establishment from sex-based wage
discrimination;
• Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, which protects individuals who
are 40 years of age or older;
• Title I and Title V of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, which
prohibits employment discrimination against qualified individuals with
disabilities in the private sector and in state and local governments;
• Civil Rights Act of 1991, which provides monetary damages in cases of
intentional employment discrimination.

Front 56

what are health care contexts?

Back 56

Health care contexts refer to the various situations in which the health
of individuals and the population of a community are the focus. In general, two types of contexts
exist: clinical and public health. Clinical contexts are locations where patients receive care from
some provider such as at the doctor’s office, hospital, health clinic, school-based health center, or
a traditional healing ceremony.

Front 57

what is health communication?

Back 57

Health communication is the exchange of symbolic messages related to personal and
public health. Health communication includes patient-provider interactions that take place in
clinical settings. Health communication also includes organizational aspects. For example, we
expect that our health care provider will communicate effectively with those running diagnostic
tests (such as blood work) and the specialist or hospital that we might be referred to.

Front 58

what is public health communication?

Back 58

Finally,
4
health communication also focuses on public or mass communication that emphasizes overall
public health. Public health communication includes such activities as a public service
announcement to stop smoking or advocating a smoking ban in restaurants.

Front 59

what is health?

Back 59

Health is a complete state of physical, mental, and social well being, not simply
the absence of disease (WHO, 1978). Much of the research on intercultural health
communication focuses on health disparities and explaining these disparities.

Front 60

what is a health disparity?

Back 60

Health disparities are inequalities in health outcomes for different cultural groups
(Williams, 2001). A health disparity exists when one cultural group has a health outcome that is
worse than that of another cultural group. It does not mean that every individual in one cultural
group experiences the health problem or that everybody in one culture has a better health
outcome than everyone else in a different group. Health disparities focus on general trends in
cultural groups, not on individuals. Therefore, health disparities are often presented in statistics
about groups.

Front 61

Explain the difference between developed and developing nations in regards to health disparities

Back 61

Nations are often compared in terms of such health outcomes as life expectancy, infant
mortality, and heart disease. In general, developing nations have worse health statistics than
developed nations. Developing versus developed is often defined as the degree of
industrialization and extent of economic growth. Developed nations have more economic
resources to spend on health care and prevention efforts such as sanitation and vaccinations.
Developing nations have a greater burden of acute diseases such as infectious diseases whereas
developed nations have a greater burden of chronic diseases. Infectious diseases are related to
sanitary conditions and vaccinations. Chronic diseases are those that develop over time and
include heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. These diseases relate to life style choices such as diet
and exercise, and developed nations have more economic resources to spend on food and
entertainment (for example, watching TV instead of exercising).

Front 62

Explain life expectancy and acute diseases in countries

Back 62

The results of chronic and acute diseases impact life expectancy: Acute diseases result in
shorter life expectancy than chronic diseases. Table 9.1 displays the life expectancy at birth of
6
selected nations included by rank in the world and income level (high, medium, or low). The
table demonstrates overall that life expectancy in developed countries (Europe, North America,
Eastern Asia) is higher than that in developing nations (African, South America,
Middle/Southeast Asia). The United States has one of the worst life expectancies of developed
countries despite spending the largest portion of its GDP on health expenditures (15.2%). Other
developed countries spend between 7.2% (Ireland) and 11.5% (Switzerland) with an overall
average of 8.9%. In contrast, Mexico only spends 6.5% of GDP on health (OECD, 2006), but
only has two years less of life expectancy at birth. The explanations for these patterns have to do
with socioeconomic status and type of health care system and are explored in the next section.

Front 63

Explain patterns of illness in America

Back 63

Patterns of illness not necessarily associated with mortality may also vary by ethnic
group. For example, some patterns of mental health disorders (such as alcohol and drug abuse,
depression, anxiety disorders, and bipoloar disorder) are consistent across ethnic groups. The
National Comorbidity Study, which surveyed thousands of people across the U.S., found that
22% of Americans were diagnosed with any mental health disorder (Kessler et al., 1994). In
comparison, the American Indian Service Utilization and Psychiatric Epidemiology Risk and
Protective Factors Project, which surveyed just American Indians according to a similar
procedure that the national study used, found a rate of mental health disorders of 21%-24%
depending on tribe (Beals et al., 2005). The rates are similar although differences can be seen in
specific mental health disorders (e.g., suicide is higher among White Americans and American
Indians than other groups) and for specific groups within these five broad categories (e.g.,
10
Japanese Americans and Hmong—groups that are both Asian Americans, but exhibit different
disorder patterns and cultures).

Front 64

Explain the national impact of breast cancer

Back 64

Other diseases indicate complex disparities. For example, the incidence (or presence) of
breast cancer is higher for White American women than Hispanic American and American
Indian women. However, the five-year survival rate for American Indians is lower than that of
Hispanic women, which is lower than that of White women (American Cancer Society, 2001;
Frost et al., 1976). The reason for this difference is that Hispanic and American Indian women’s
breast cancer is detected at later stages when the cancer is advanced and spreads because they are
less likely to use breast cancer screening techniques (American Cancer Society, 2001; Gilliland,
Rosenburg, Hunt, Stauber, & Key, 2000). All of these statistics point out general trends about
disease patterns and mortality, but it is important to examine specific diseases and cultural
groups--not just broad categories of ethnic groups--when addressing health disparities. The next
section in this chapter examines why some of these disparities exist.

Front 65

what are the five factors that dominate health disparites

Back 65

a)
socioeconomic status, (b) health care system problems, (c) cultural beliefs and behaviors, (d)
service utilization obstacles, and (e) cultural competence.

Front 66

Explain the health care systems problem.

Back 66

The nature of the health care system has a role in explaining health disparities. In the U.S.
(other systems will be explored in the top-down layer section), the health care system includes
both public and private aspects (Williams & Torrens, 2002). The public health system includes
components of public health care such as the Veterans Association and the Indian Health Service
(IHS). These systems of care are available for only particular populations. In addition, public
health components such as research and promotion are addressed by the federal and state
governments (for example, National Institutes for Health to fund research). The private
components are the source of health care for the majority of people. The vast majority of clinics
and hospitals are funded by private insurance. Within this system, a number of factors affect the
quality of care including financing and access to services, availability of services, and
coordination of services.

Front 67

Explain the cultural behavior problem in the health care system.

Back 67

Health behaviors are influenced by general health beliefs such as the attributions we
make about health, (Janz, Champion, & Strecher, 2002), that is, our explanations about the
causes of our health problems and diseases. These attributions are important as they identify
what we think is the cause of the disease and hence the solution. Understanding these attributions
influences whether we seek care and which type of healer we seek. Two categories of health
beliefs are relevant: general beliefs and cultural specific beliefs.
General health beliefs consist of three variables that are associated with most theories of
health behavior: perceived threat, perceived efficacy, and barriers (Witte & Morrison, 1995).
Perceived threat is the degree that a person feels concerned by a particular disease or health
problem. For example, “Do I feel like I could get diabetes?” Perceived efficacy is the degree to
which a person feels he can perform certain behaviors to avoid the threat. For example, “Do I
think I can engage in the activities necessary to avoid diabetes like eating more nutritious foods
and exercising)?” Barriers are the perceived psychological, financial, or physical costs that
inhibit the behavior. For example, “Do I have the motivation, money, and time to eat better and
exercise?”
Cultural health beliefs are culturally based factors that work with threat, efficacy, and
barriers to influence health behavior (Witte & Morrison, 1995). Three such beliefs are animism,
familism, and fatalism. Animism is the belief in supernatural beings such as good and evil
spirits, spirits of inanimate objects. Animists believe that health conditions are due to such
factors as the loss of one’s spirits and that such conditions can be prevented by avoiding taboos
(for example, avoiding certain locations) and repaired by animal sacrifice and by traditional
healers such as shamans.
17
Familism is the influence of family values on health decisions and is closely related to
the notions of individualism and collectivism. In individualistic cultures, the family has
importance, but most health behavior decisions are up to the individual who may or may not
consult with the family. In collectivistic societies, especially with people who are traditional, the
family makes the decision and receives the health information. The doctor’s diagnosis belongs to
the family and should be shared with the family who will make the key decisions, particularly
with influence from the head of the household—male or female depending on whether the
society is a patriarchy or a matriarchy. One of my colleagues shared a story from her own
family—one of traditional Italian immigrants. When a medical provider told the wife he
suspected she had breast cancer and told her to report to the hospital for a biopsy, the husband
refused to let her go. A common belief in this culture is that when a person goes to the hospital,
he or she dies. The daughter in the family had to kidnap her mother when her husband was at
work and take her to the hospital where, ironically, the biopsy showed no malignancy at all.
Fatalism is the perceived lack of control over one’s environment. The extent of fatalism
can be seen in two categories of health attributions: behavioral-environmental and equity
attributions (Murguía et al., 2000). Behavioral-environmental

Front 68

Explian the service utilization problem in health care systems.

Back 68

One of the protectors of good health is the utilization of appropriate and effective
services. In general, most cultural groups do not use physical and mental health services at the
appropriate level. For example, with regards to mental health services, only about 40% of U.S.
Americans (regardless of cultural background) who need mental health services use them. Some
research shows American Indians use mental health services slightly less than this amount;
specifically, only 32% of people with a past-year mental health disorder sought treatment for
mental health problems (Oetzel et al., 2006). Similar disparities exist in health care use for
physical health. For example, White Americans make 48% more office-based physician visits
than African Americans (3,161 vs. 2,139 visits per 1,000 people) (Bernstein et al., 2003).

Front 69

what are some other obstacles that limit service utilization

Back 69

Numerous obstacles limit service utilization. One study of obstacles for mental health
service use reported by American Indian adults in three communities found four obstacles: (a)
self-reliance, (b) privacy issues, (c) quality of care, and (d) communication/trust (Oetzel et al.,
2006). A vast majority (71%) of participants reported at least one of these obstacles during
treatment, and 61% faced two or more obstacles. These four obstacles have been identified in
other U.S. cultural groups and physical health services (Bernstein et al., 2003; Williams &
Torrens, 2002). Financing and access to care are additional obstacles to health care as noted in
the previous section.

Front 70

Explain the intercultural conflict of scarce resources

Back 70

The primary source of all conflict is scarce resources. When enough power, enough jobs,
enough money, and enough status is available for everyone involved, intercultural community
conflict is practically nonexistent. Unfortunately, many material resources are limited, thus
creating a zero-sum game, or at least the perception of a zero-sum game. A zero-sum game
occurs when the resources are limited such that, if one party gets some, what is available to
others is diminished. In some situations, a true zero-sum game exists. If an employer only has 25
jobs, then only 25 people can get them. Many situations are perceived as zero-sum even when
they are not. For example, while the one employer might only have 25 jobs, it might be possible
to engage in community organizing to convince other employers to come to the area.

Front 71

Explain disenfrancishement and scare resources and intercultural conflict

Back 71

ntercultural community conflict that often results from scarce resources occurs in two
patterns. In the first, the distribution of scare resources differentially affects certain cultural
groups; that is, one group in power has more resources--especially money and political power--
than other cultural groups. The disadvantaged group begins to feel disenfranchised or feel
deprived of the rights of citizenship. Disenfranchisement forms the basis of two key roots of
community conflict: (a) the general perception by disadvantaged people that the system, as
shaped by more powerful and dominant culture members, is inherently oppressive and
discriminatory; and (b) a lack of confidence by disadvantaged people in the interests and
capabilities of public and private institutions to provide adequate redress for their grievances
(Warfield, 2006). These two key roots generally fester until a triggering event brings the conflict
12
to a boil. Often the triggering event is alleged use of excessive force by police that results in
injury or death to a minority member.

Front 72

Describe the second pattern of scare resources in intercultural conflict

Back 72

In the second pattern, members of the majority culture, particularly those at a lower
socioeconomic status, feel that other cultural groups are beginning to take resources that
rightfully belonged to their cultural group. Similar to the first pattern, this group feels
disenfranchised and believes that those in power do not want to address the issues. However,
they feel some agency and thus engage in political protests or exclusionary steps to stop the
injustice rather than participate in violent acts although those occasionally occur as, for instance,
in 2000 when a rancher in Texas shot an illegal immigrant who was on his property; the rancher
chased the man for 1⁄4 mile in his truck and tried to subdue him for border patrol agents
(Gonzales, 2001). To illustrate the second pattern, in the U.S. during the mid to late 2000s,
illegal immigration has been a major topic. Many individuals from the majority culture think the
U.S. is not doing enough to stop illegal immigration, particularly from Mexico, and have
advocated tougher laws against immigration. Another example is people who do not hire or
rent/sell houses to people from minority cultural groups in order to keep neighborhoods

Front 73

Explain moral conflict

Back 73

Moral conflict “is a clash between opposing parties based on differences in deeply held
philosophical assumptions about being, knowledge, and the world” (Littlejohn, 2006, p. 395).
Moral conflict is a challenge, but opens rich opportunities for interpersonal learning, improved
relationships, and creative collaboration. Moral difference is not surprising or problematic in and
of itself, but how we address moral difference in regards to a clash can be.
Littlejohn (2006) explained that “personal action is always embedded within a moral
order, or set of assumptions about what is real, how we know reality, and what is right” (p. 395).
For example, pro-life and pro-choice parties may disagree on whether abortion should be legal,
but their respective positions rely on different moral orders. Arguing about abortion is useless
when the two sides share no common way of resolving the issue. This is the essential problem of
moral conflict: The moral orders are incommensurate; that is, the logic and values of the moral
orders cannot be directly compared or integrated.

Front 74

what are some components of moral conflict?

Back 74

Several characteristics of moral conflict are evident when it results in an open clash
(Littlejohn, 2006). First, the language of both sides differs, or they use concepts differently. For
example, pro-life advocates talk about life as “what God intended,” and pro-choice advocates
talk about life as being about freedom of choice. Second, the parties will seem locked into the
dispute and feel they have no choice but to defend their position and fight. Attempts to resolve
20
the conflict actually end in fueling the conflict. For example, in the abortion debate, the pro-life
faction fails to see why the other party rejects their case; “surely they understand how important
life is.” Third, the parties begin to namecall, describing others as ignorant, uneducated, evil, or
sick. The conflict allows no creativity and no solution other than to eliminate the rival or
surrender. Essentially, the conflict becomes intractable—no solution or resolution to the conflict
is possible, and it lasts for years. Finally, disputants violate their own moral order as they feel
justified in order to preserve their way of life. For example, in the extreme, pro-life advocates
who bomb abortion clinics feel justified that they had to kill to preserve the sanctity of life.

Front 75

what is institutionalized racism?

Back 75

Institutionalized racism is “differential access to goods, services, and opportunities of society by race”

Front 76

what is internalized racism?

Back 76

Internalized racism is the acceptance by members of the stigmatized races of negative messages about their own abilities and intrinsic worth.

Front 77

what are two theories of media production?

Back 77

agenda setting

cultural studies

Front 78

Explain the agenda setting theory of media production

Back 78

Media scholars have long recognized that media or cultural industries set the agenda for
discussion about news on political and societal issues (Dearing & Rogers, 1996; Shaw &
McCombs, 1977); that is, the media do not tell us what to think, but they do tell us what to think
about. The reason for this is that the media have to be selective in what they cover—they simply
cannot cover every topic thoroughly. Thus, they serve as gate keepers who make choices about
what to report and how to report it. What the general public largely knows about any given topic
is a function of media gatekeeping (Shoemaker, 1996) The agenda setting function is a three-part process (Dearing & Rogers, 1996). First, the
issues to be discussed in the media are set: media agenda. Second, the media agenda in some
way affects what the public seeks: public agenda. Third, the public agenda has some influence in
what policymakers consider important: policy agenda. The simple view of this process is a linear
one in which the media agenda affects the public agenda and the public agenda affects the policy
agenda. However, it is possible to have the public influence the media agenda, for example,
through protests. Setting the agenda is largely determined by who has the power to determine the
agenda. In some situations, governments with a lot of power, especially governments that have a
large control of the media such as those in Cuba, China, and Venezuela, determine the media’s
8
agenda to start the cycle. In many situations, the media conglomerates have enormous power and
control the agenda (Gilboa, 2006). This power is the subject of the next theory.

Front 79

Explain the cultural studies of media production.

Back 79

A theory that extends the focus of media ideology beyond simply agenda setting is
cultural studies. Cultural studies theory investigates the way the media (and other aspects of
culture) are produced and the struggle of ideologies that the productions reflect (Hall, 1981; Hall,
1985; Hall, Hobson, Lowe, Willis, 1981). This production is based on ideology and reflects the
power that media have in providing images and practices about culture. Cultural industries are
powerful controllers of ideology because what they produce is highly visible and consumed. In
this manner, cultural industries can present a dominant ideology to large number of people while
other ideologies are on unequal ground, that is, those that do not have the backing of a power
cultural industry. Hegemony is one result of such unequal power. Hegemony is the process of
creating consent and acceptance of one set of ideas or groups as another set of ideas or groups
are subverted (Gramsci, 1971).
Cultural studies scholars emphasize several aspects of this struggle of ideologies and the
process of hegemony. First, cultural industries are primarily capitalistic endeavors that create
products for sale. Thus, the information disseminated is based on what the market will bear.
Second, the control of such information is held within the hands of fewer and fewer industries
because of media conglomerates; that is, a few companies have a great deal of power. Cultural
studies scholars describe these two points in terms of political economy (Campbell et al., 2007).
Political economy is the power held by cultural industries in the production of media for
capitalistic purposes. Many cultural studies scholars are suspicious of the large media

Front 80

What are the three theories of media reception?

Back 80

uses and gratifications

cultiation

hybridity

Front 81

Explain the uses and gratifcation of media theory

Back 81

The uses and gratifications theory proposes an alternative to audience passivity; rather, it
focuses on the audience as active consumers (Campbell et al., 2007; Katz, Blumer, & Gurevitch,
1974). This theory assumes that the audience functions as active and discriminating users of the
media and seeks out the media to meet emotional or intellectual needs or gratifications. In fact,
the media are but one way to meet these gratifications, and a host of media options to gratify
needs are available.
With the assumption of an active consumer, uses and gratifications theory proposes an
alternative to the hypodermic needle with how the media affects the audience. Specifically, it
suggests that the media provide the stimulus, and the users choose to attune to the message and
how best to make sense of the message. An effect is produced, but the audience use of the media
and not simply the mediated message is what determined the effect.

Front 82

Explain the cultivation of media theory

Back 82

Cultivation theory deals with the role of television in distributing and consolidating
beliefs about the world (Gerbner, 1981; Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, Signorielli, & Shanahan,
24
2002). Cultivation is the process of homogenizing the beliefs of the audience. The basic notion
of cultivation is that the more a person watches television, the more she will adopt the worldview
presented. This theory predicts a major difference between heavy and light consumers of
television. Specifically, heavy viewers will believe in a reality that is consistent with what is
shown on television. From the cultivation perspective, individuals who are heavy users are more
likely to believe the stereotypical images of people of color on television than are light viewers.
One of the more popular concepts associated with cultivation theory is the mean-world
syndrome. Heavy exposure to television and its violent images can lead a viewer to conclude
that the world is a violent place and people cannot be trusted, especially people of color since
they are overrepresented as perpetrators of crime.

Front 83

Explain the hybridity theory of media reception

Back 83

The cultural imperialism hypothesis assumes that the large cultural industries are
presenting a single global culture that benefits the capitalist economy. Other researchers argue
that the cultural imperialism hypothesis assumes a passive audience and, in fact, audiences are
actually active. Rather than accepting mediated ideology wholesale, audiences interpret the
messages as suits their attitudes and cultures. In this sense, they blend the mediated messages
and their own cultures into a new mixture. This process of creating this mixture is called
hybridity (Kraidy, 2002).
Hybridity considers how local cultures consume and alter global messages. At a basic
descriptive level, Tomlinson (1999) described how Coca Cola is used in different national
cultures. For example, some cultures believe that it has magical properties such as smoothing
wrinkles (Russia), reviving the dead (Haiti), and turning copper into silver (Barbados). In
addition, Coca Cola is indigenized by mixing with local drinks such as rum in the Caribbean,
which has been brought to and popularized in the U.S. Another example is anime (animation
from Japan). Anime has become very popular in other cultures than Japan and is used for
narration.

Front 84

Discuss the results of having fewer, but large-scale media ownership.

Back 84

Media
centers are growing around the world including those in Hollywood, Bollywood (India), Mexico,
Brazil, Egypt, Taiwan, and Hong Kong (Curran, 2002). Yet, cultural studies scholars lament that
these media centers are dominated by just a few large scale conglomerates. In the U.S.,
Bagdikian (2004) identified five corporations that control the majority of newspapers,
magazines, books, television, books, and movies: Time Warner, Walt Disney, New Cooperation,
Viacom, and Bertelsmann. He also noted that a 6th (GE; owner of NBC) was very close to these
top five.
For example, the largest U.S. media company is Time Warner with $43.7 billion in
revenue (Campbell et al., 2007). Time Warner has holdings in television (Turner Broadcasting
System—TBS, CNN, CNN headline news; Home Box Office, and Warner Brothers—CW
network joint venture with CBS), cable (Time Warner Cable), magazines (for example People,
Sports Illustrated, Time, Real Simple), Internet (AOL), and movies (Warner Brothers and New Line). Other large media companies have as diverse holdings as Time Warner making their reach
broad.

Front 85

what are the two different types of learning styles

Back 85

experimental learning model

cooperation v. individual

Front 86

what is the experimental learning model?

Back 86

The most popular way to examine learning styles is Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning
model. Kolb conceptualized learning as a cycle of four elements all of which need to be present
for comprehensive learning to occur. The four elements are constructed from two dimensions: a)
abstract-concrete: degree of involvement or analytic detachment from the subject matter and b)
action-reflection: degree of doing versus reflecting/observing. The first position is concrete
experience, which provides first-hand experience of the subject matter. As you study
intercultural communication, you might directly interact with someone from another culture. The
second position is reflective observation, which provides the learner an opportunity to observe
and think about the meaning of the observation. As you study intercultural communication, you
might watch a movie about a particular culture and think about the meanings in the culture and
how they impact you. The third position is abstract conceptualization, which provides the
learner with the opportunity to weigh the strengths and limitations of perspectives. As you study
intercultural communication, you might read about cultural value differences, such as
individualism/collectivism, and think about how these differences impact communication and the strengths/weaknesses of such approaches, that is, how they affect certain outcomes. The final
position is active experimentation, which provides the learner the opportunity to directly test
what has been learned in the previous three stages. As you study intercultural communication,
you might consider applying your understanding of individualism/collectivism to see if you can
improve the quality of an interaction with someone from another culture. This active
experimentation sets the stage as a new concrete experience.
Although the ideal learning cycle integrates all four elements, Kolb (1984) noted that
individuals develop learning style preferences based on the two dimensions. Accommodators
combine concrete experience and active experimentation. Accommodators solve problems
through trial and error and enjoy teaching others. They excel at situations in which it is necessary
to adapt to the immediate circumstances. Convergers combine active experimentation and
abstract conceptualization. Convergers like practical application of ideas and learn by doing and
thinking in an unemotional manner. They use deductive reasoning to focus their knowledge on
specific problems. Divergers combine concrete experience and reflective observation. Divergers
excel at viewing an event from many perspectives and organizing many relationships into a
meaningful whole. They work well with groups and are imaginative and emotional individuals.
Assimilators combine reflective observation and abstract conceptualization. Assimilators like to
create theoretical models and learn by watching and thinking. They value order, expert opinion,
detailed information, and certainty. See Figure 7.6 for a graphical model of Kolb’s experiential
model.

Front 87

Identify two types of peer to peer commmunication

Back 87

Peer-to-peer communication
includes social support and intercultural conflict. Social support occurs when individuals
provide aid, assistance, and comfort to others. This might include encouragement from
classmates or clarification about assignments. Intercultural conflict occurs when students
from one cultural group have a dispute with those of another cultural group.

Front 88

Explain how instructional communication contributes to disparities in educational outcomes

Back 88

These
communicative elements impact educational outcome disparities in two ways: a) the
predominant climate in the classroom does not match the home culture of students; and b)
there are more negative conflict and support situations for students of color than for
White American students. Instructional communication is not the only factor for
disparities in educational outcomes, but it is an important component.

Front 89

Describe some educational disparities

Back 89

Disparities in educational outcomes focus on
differences in reading and math proficiency scores, graduation rates, and enrollment in
college. Disparities occur when cultural, ethnic, or racial groups score lower or have
43
lower outcomes than other groups. In the U.S., White and Asian American students tend
to have higher proficiency scores, graduation rates, and university enrollment than do
African Americans, Hispanic Americans, and American Indians.

Front 90

Describe the workplace as a unique setting

Back 90

•The workplace consists of many organizations that are
composed of collectives with coordinated goals, structure, and division of labor. These
organizations, in turn, operate in a larger organizational context; in this sense,
organizations are systems within larger systems. The characteristics of these systems
place an emphasis on understanding intercultural communication at the level of
individuals, relationships, groups, and organizational culture.

Front 91

Explain the benefits and challenges of cultural diversity in the workplace and why organizations have difficulty analyzing diversity problems.

Back 91

Most organizations want to
enhance their cultural diversity as diversity has many benefits including enhanced
problem-solving, creativity, flexibility, and marketing. On the other hand, potential
Oetzel—Ch. 8 41
problems with losses to process and productivity can occur if organizations do not handle
diversity well. Unfortunately, most organizations do not analyze the issues associated
with diversity well and forget to examine and focus on organizational culture.

Front 92

list four different layers of intercultural communication in the workplace and provide an example of each.

Back 92

At the organizational
culture layer, we can examine the degree of international focus ranging from domestic to
global. In addition, organizations still have an internal focus to their organization ranging
from monolithic to multicultural. At the workgroup layer, work specialization, cultural
diversity, and electronic media are three factors that influence group communication. At
the managerial layer, we consider different preferences for managerial style based on
cultural values including the personal, status-achievement, benevolent, and communal
approaches. At the individual layer, individual reactions to the organization’s approach to
diversity are critical for creating an inclusive environment.

Front 93

what is the difference between cultural competence and cultural sensitivity?

Back 93

These concepts have overlapping
meaning in that both focus on effective intercultural communication. Cultural
competence focuses on the communication ability of providers and patients to be
appropriate and effective (clinical health communication). Cultural sensitivity focuses on
culturally appropriate and effective communication campaigns with careful attention to
the deep structure of culture (public health communication).

Front 94

Provide examples of cultural competence, cultural sensitivity, and media advocacy.

Back 94

Motivational interviewing is one culturally competent communication behavior for health
behavior change. Entertainment education is an example of a culturally sensitive
communication campaign. The Truth campaign is an example of media advocacy. These
three types of intercultural communication behaviors are appropriate for addressing the
layered challenges of health disparities.

Front 95

what is social capital?

Back 95

Features of social organization such as networks, norms, and social trust that
facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit.

Front 96

what is sense of community

Back 96

The feeling of caring and sharing among people in a community.

Front 97

what is neighborhood collective efficacy
'

Back 97

The belief that members of a community can act collectively
to achieve some goal.

Front 98

what is community capcity

Back 98

The characteristics of communities that affect their ability to identify,
mobilize, and address social and public health problems.

Front 99

what is community empowerment

Back 99

A social action process that promotes the participation of people
and organizations toward the goals of community.

Front 100

describe three sources of community conflict

#

Back 100

Building intercultural community is challenging
due to three sources of community conflicts: scarce resources and disenfranchisement,
cultural and value differences, and institutionalized and internalized racism.

Front 101

Illustrate the process of scarce resources resulting in intercultural community conflict

#

Back 101

Scarce resources
result in competition for jobs and power and often result in certain cultural groups whose
40
members feel like second-class citizens (disenfranchisement). Two patterns lead to
conflict. In the first, the distribution of scare resources differentially affects certain
cultural groups. The feeling of disenfranchisement, along with a triggering event, has
created many racial conflicts around the world (such as in Los Angeles, Cincinnati, and
Paris). In the second pattern, members of the majority culture, particularly those at a
lower socioeconomic status, feel that other cultural groups are beginning to take
resources that rightfully belong to their cultural group. Similar to the first pattern, in this
pattern, this group feels disenfranchised and believes that those in power do not want to
address the issues. However, they do feel some agency and thus engage in political protests or exclusionary steps to stop the injustice rather than engage in violent acts
(although they can occur as well).

Front 102

Explain the components of moral conflictq

#

Back 102

Moral conflicts occur when the worldviews of cultural
groups clash. No direct resolution to the conflict can occur because the issues are framed
from different moral orders (such as pro-life and pro-choice). Moral conflict includes
four characteristics: a) the language of the conflict differs for both sides: b) the parties
feel locked into the conflict and, as they fight, they fuel the conflict; c) the parties begin
to describe the other group as ignorant, uneducated, evil, or sick, which leads to an
intractable conflict; and d) disputants violate their own moral order as they feel justified
in order to support their position.

Front 103

what is the difference between institutionalized and internalized racism

#

Back 103

Institutionalized and internalized racism
creates inequities within and between cultural/racial groups. These inequities create
tensions that are challenges to building a community. Internalized racism occurs when
individuals within a cultural or racial group accept the inequities associated with race and
41
culture. These individuals might equate strength with the majority group or try to squash
the efforts of members of their own group who want to improve their situation or that of
the community. Institutionalized racism has been codified in our customs and laws that
result in different material conditions, such as better schools and safer neighborhoods,
and access to power such as holding power positions in government.

Front 104

Describe three reasons why history matters

#

Back 104

History matters
for intercultural communication for three reasons: (a) it is part of collective memory and
cultural identity; (b) past traumatic events are passed down through generations
(historical trauma); and (c) history has significant consequences for intercultural relations
today.

Front 105

How does history relate to cultural identity

#

Back 105

History is the collective memory of a group of
people that shapes cultural identity. It provides meaning and definition to a cultural group
and the individual members of that group. For groups in power, the collective memory is
important to recognize the achievements of individuals in that group; there is also the
concern of people in power to retain their power and hence histories get retold in ways
that support group pride and power. For groups not in power, collective memory
recognizes struggle and survivorship, but also the struggle to be recognized by the
majority culture. The histories of many cultural groups without power are hidden thus
denying them affirmation of accomplishments and recognition of their contribution to a
society. This lack of recognitions inhibits the opportunity to succeed.

Front 106

Describe historical trauma and ways of adressing it.

#

Back 106

Historical trauma is unresolved
trauma and grief that are passed from one generation to the next such that events that
happened many years ago still impact people today. Historical trauma results in negative
physical and mental health outcomes. Cultural groups can address their own historical
trauma individually by strengthening cultural identity and practices and collectively by
engaging in community healing rituals.