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201 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
anatomical position
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standard position; body erect, feet apart, head/toes forward, arms at sides with palms forward
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axial
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relating to head, neck, and trunk, axis of body
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appendicular
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relating to limbs and their attachments to the axis
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abdominal
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pertaining to the anterior body trunk region inferior to the ribs
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acromial
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pertaining to the point of the shoulder
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antebrachial
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pertaining to the forearm
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antecubital
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pertaining to the anterior surface of the elbow
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axillary
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pertaining to the armpit
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brachial
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pertaining to the arm
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buccal
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pertaining to the cheek
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carpal
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pertaining to the wrist
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cervical
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pertaining to the neck region
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coxal
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pertaining to the hip
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crural
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pertaining to the leg
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digital
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pertaining to the fingers or toes
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femoral
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pertaining to the forehead
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hallux
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pertaining to the big toe
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inguinal
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pertaining to the groin
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mammary
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pertaining to the breast
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mental
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pertaining to the chin
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nasal
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pertaining to the nose
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oral
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pertaining to the mouth
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orbital
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pertaining to the bony eye socket (orbit)
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palmar
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pertaining to the palm of the hand
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patellar
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pertaining to the anterior knee (kneecap) region
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pedal
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pertaining to the foot
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pelvic
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pertaining to the pelvis region
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fibular (peroneal)
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pertaining to the side of the leg
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pollex
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pertaining to the thumb
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pubic
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pertaining to the genital region
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sternal
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pertaining to the region of the breastbone
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tarsal
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pertaining to the ankle
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thoracic
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pertaining to the chest
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umbilical
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pertaining to the navel
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acromial
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pertaining to the point of the shoulder
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calcaneal
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pertaining to the heel of the foot
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cephalic
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pertaining to the head
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dorsum
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pertaining to the back
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gluteal
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pertaining to the buttocks
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lumbar
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pertaining to the area of the back between the ribs and hips; the loin
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manus
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pertaining to the hand
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occipital
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pertaining to the posterior aspect of the head or base of the skull
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olecranal
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pertaining to the posterior aspect of the elbow
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otic
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pertaining to the ear
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perineal
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pertaining to the region between the anus and external genitalia
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plantar
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pertaining to the sole of the foot
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popliteal
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pertaining to the back of the knee
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sacral
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pertaining to the region between the hips (overlying the sacrum)
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scapular
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pertaining to the scapula or shoulder blade area
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sural
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pertaining to the calf or posterior surface of the leg
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vertebral
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pertaining to the area of the spinal column
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superior/inferior
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towards the head / away from head
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anterior/posterior
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proceeds 1st in locomotion / follows anterior in locomotion
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medial/lateral
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towards the middle / towards the side
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cephalad (cranial)/caudal
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used mainly with animals: towards head / towards tail
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dorsal/ventral
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used mainly with animals: towards the back / towards the belly
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proximal/distal
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close to sight of attachment / away from sight of attachment
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superficial (external)/deep (internal)
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towards the surface / away from surface
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sagittal plane
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divides body into right and left (could be midsagittal or parasagittal)
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frontal plane
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divides body into front and back
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transverse plane
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divides the body into superior and inferior parts (sections are commonly called cross sections)
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dorsal cavity
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subdivided into cranial and vertebral cavities; contains brain enclosed within the skull, spinal cord/vertebral column
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ventral body cavity
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subdivided into thoracic (superior), abdominopelvic (inferior to diaphragm), and pelvic cavities; contains heart/lungs, stomach/intestines/liver/other organs, and reproductive organs/bladder/rectum
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serosa (serosa membrane)
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moist membrane found in closed ventral body cavities
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parietal serosa
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part of double-layered membrane that lines the walls of the ventral body cavity
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visceral serosa
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part of the double-layered membrane that lines the outer surfaces of organs within the ventral body cavity
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peritoneum
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serosa lining the abdominal cavity and covering its organs
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pleura
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serosa enclosing the lungs
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pericardium
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serosa around the heart
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umbilical region
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centermost region; includes umbilicus
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epigastric region
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immediately superior to the umbilical region; overlies most of the stomach
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hypogastric (pubic) region
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immediately inferior to the umbilical region; encompasses the pubic area
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iliac (inguinal) regions
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lateral to the hypogastric region and overlying the superior parts of the hip bones
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lumbar regions
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between the ribs and the flaring portiongs of the hip bones; lateral to the umbilical region
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hypochondriac regions
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flanking the epigastric region laterally and overlying the lower ribs
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oral cavity
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mouth; contains tounge and teeth; continuous with rest of digestive tube, which opens to the exterior at the anus
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nasal cavity
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within and posterior to the nose; part of the passages of the respiratory system
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orbital cavities
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orbits in the skull house the eyes and present them in an anterior position
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middle ear cavities
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lies just medial to ear drum and carved into the skull; contains tiny bones that transmit sound vibs. to the organ of hearing in the inner ears
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synovial cavities
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joint cavities; enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround the freely movable joints of the body, such as those between vertebrae and knee/hip joints
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4 primary tissue types
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epithelium, connective, nervous, muscle
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epithelial tissue (epithelium)
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covers surfaces; covers the external body surface, lines its cavities and tubules, generally marks off "insides" from outsides; glands are classified as epithelium. FUNCTIONS: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception
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epithelia are classified to 2 criteria
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arrangement or relative number of layers and cell shape
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basement membrane
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extracellular material consisting of a basal lamina secreted by epithelial cells and a reticular lamina secreted by underlying connective tissue cells
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simple epithelia
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one-layer attached to basement membrane
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stratified epithelia
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two or more layers of cells
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squamous
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scale-like
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cuboidal
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cube-like
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columnar
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column-shaped
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pseudostratified epithelium
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actually simple columnar, but gives false appearance of being stratified because cells vary in height and nuclei lie at different levels above the basement membrane; often ciliated
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transitional epithelium
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peculiar stratified squamous epithelium formed of rounded, "plump" cells w/ ability to slide over one another to allow organ to be stretched; found only in urinary system organs subjected to periodic distension (e.g. bladder)
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endocrine glands
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made from epithelial cells; lose their surface connections (duct) as they develop; secretions (HORMONES) extrude into blood stream or lymphatic vessels that weave through the glands
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exocrine glands
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retain ducts; sections empty through these ducts to an epithelial surface (e.g. sweat/oil glands, liver, pancreas); both external and internal
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simple squamous epithelium
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DESCRIPTION: single layer of flattened cells with disc-shaped central neclei and sparse cytoplasm; simplest of epithelia
FUNCTION: allows passage of material by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important; secretes lubricating substances in serosae LOCATION: kidney glomeruli, air sacs of lungs, lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels; lining of ventral body cavity (serosae) |
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simple columnar epithelium
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DESCRIPTION: single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei; some cells bear cilia; layer may contain mucus-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells)
FUNCTION: absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action LOCATION: nonciliated type lines most of the digestive tract (stomach to anal canal), gallbladder, and excretory ducts of some glands; ciliated variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus |
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stratified squamous epithelium
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DESCRIPTION: thick membrane composed of several cell layers; basal cells are cuboidal or columnar and metabolically active; surface cells are flattened (squamous); in the keratinized type, the surface cells are full of keratin and dead; basal cells are active in mitosis and produce the cells of the more superficial layers
FUNCTION: protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion LOCATION: nonkeratinized type forms the moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina; keratinized variety forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane |
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connective tissue
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found in all parts of the body as discrete structures or as part of various body organs; MOST ABUNDANT and WIDELY DISTRIBUTED
FUNCTION: protect, support, binding together other tissues of the body, repair of all body tissues TYPES: bone/osseous, dense (ligaments and tendons), areolar, adipose, hematopoietic, scar CHARACTERISTICS: rich supply of blood vessels (w/ few exceptions - cartilages, tendons, and ligaments), composed of many types of cells, and composed of a great deal of noncellular, nonliving material (matrix) between the cells of the tissue |
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extracellular matrix
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produced by the cells then extruded; primarily responsible for strength assoc. w/ conn. tissue, but there is variation (e.g. adipose tissue has lots of cells, bone and cartilage have larger amounts of matrix)
2 components: ground substances and fibers |
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ground substance
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composed of interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins, and proteogylcans; may be liquid, semisolid, gel-like, or very hard; functions as a molecular sieve (medium) through which nutrients and dissolved substs. can diffuse b/t the blood capillaries and the cells
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matrix fibers
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provide support; includes collagen (white - MOST ABUNDANT), elastic (yellow), and reticular (fine collagen); hinders diffusion; makes ground substs. less pliable
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areolar connective tissue
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soft packaging material that cushins and protects body organs; considered the model or prototype of the connective tissues; contain all 3 varieties of fibers
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4 types of adult connective tissue
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all have large amounts of matrix:
1. connective tissue proper (areolar, adipose, reticular, and dense connective tissues) 2. cartilage 3. bone 4. blood -all derive from embryonic tissue called mesenchyme |
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connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, adipose
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DESCRIPTION: matrix as in areolar, but very sparse; closely packed adipocytes, or fat cells, have nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplets
FUNCTION: provides reserve food fuel; insulates against heat loss; supports and protects organs LOCATION: under skin; around kidneys and eyeballs; within abdomen; in breasts |
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cartilage: hyaline
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DESCRIPTION: amorphous but firm matrix; collagen fibers form an imperceptible network; chondroblasts produce the matrix and when mature (chondrocytes) lie in lacunae
LOCATION: forms most of the embryonic skeleton; covers ends of long bones in joint cavities; forms costal cartilages of the ribs; cartilages of the nose, trachea, and larynx |
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cartilage: fibrocartilage
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DESCRIPTION: matrix similar to but less firm than that in hyaline cartilage; thick collagen fibers predominate
FUNCTION: tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock LOCATION: intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joint |
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bone (osseous tissue)
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DESCRIPTION: hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae; very well vascularized
FUNCTION: bone supports and protects (by enclosing); provides levers for the muscles to act on; stores calcium and other minerals and fat; marrow inside bones is the site for blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) LOCATION: bones |
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blood (tissue)
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DESCRIPTION: red and white blood cells in a fluid matrix (plasma)
FUNCTION: transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes and other substances LOCATION: contained within blood vessels |
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muscle tissue
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highly specialized to contract and produces most types of body movement; cells tend to be enlongated; 3 types (skeletal, cardiac, smooth)
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skeletal muscle
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"meat" or flesh of body; DESCRIPTION: long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells; obvious striations
FUNCTION: voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression; voluntary control LOCATION: in skeletal muscles attached to bones or occasionally to skin |
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cardiac muscle
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DESCRIPTION: branching, striated, generally uninucleate cells that fit together at specialized junctions (intercalated discs - allows c.m. to act as a unit)
FUNCTION: as it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control LOCATION: the walls of the heart |
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smooth muscle (visceral muscle)
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DESCRIPTION: spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; NO striations; cells arranged closely to form sheets
FUNCTION: propels substances or objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby) along internal passageways; involuntary control LOCATION: mostly in the walls of hollow organs (digestive and urinary tract organs, uterus, blood vessels) |
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nervous tissue
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composed of two major cell populations (neuroglia and neurons); those cells that are most often association with nervous system functioning
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neuroglia
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1 of 2 cell populations in nervous tissue; special supporting cells that protect, support, and insulate the more delicate neurons
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neurons
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1 of 2 major cell populations of nervous tissue; highly specialized to receive stimuli (irritability) and to conduct waves of excitation, or impulses, to all parts of the body (conductivity); structure contains nucleus-containing cell body with cytoplasm drawn out into long extensions (cell processes) which allows a single neuron to conduct an impulse over relatively long distances
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2 regions of the skin
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1. superficial epidermis - composed of epithelium
2. dermis - an underlying connective tissue -the layers are firmly "cemented" together along an undulating border |
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epidermis
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the avascular epidermis is a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium consisting of 4 distinct cell types (keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans' cells, merkel cells) and 4-5 distinct layers (but know only two: stratum basale and stratum corneum)
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keratinocytes (keratin cells)
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MOST ABUNDANT epidermal cells; function mainly to produce keratin fibrils (keratin is a fibrous protein that gives the epidermis its durability and protective capabilities); tightly connected to each other by desmosomes
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melanocytes
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spidery black cells that produce the brown-to-black pigment called melanin; melanin provides a protective pigment umbrella over the nuclei of the cells in the deeper epidermal layers (which shields genetic material from damaging effects of UV); [] of melanin in one spot is called a freckle
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langerhans' cells
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aka epidermal dendritic cells; phagocytic cells (macrophages) play a role in immunity
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merkel cells
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occasional spiky hemispheres that, in conjunction with sensory nerve endings, form sensitive touch receptors called Merkel discs, located at the epidermal-dermal junction
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stratum basale (basal layer)
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single row of cells immediately adjacent to the dermis; cells constantly undergoing mitotic cell division to produce millions of new cells daily, hence its alternate name stratum germinativum; 10-20% of the cells are melanocytes which thread their processes through this and the adjacent layers of keratinocytes
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stratum corneum (horny layer)
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outermost epidermal layer; consists of 20-30 cell layers; accounts for the bulk of the epidermal thickness; cells are dead and their flattened scalelike remnants are fully keratinized; constantly rubbing off and being replaced by division of deeper cells
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dermis
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dense, irregular connective tissue w/ 2 regions (papillary and reticular areas); varies in thickness; also contains fibroblasts, adipose cells, various types of macrophages, and other cell types; abundant dermal blood supply allows skin to play role in regulation of body temp; also richly provided with lymphatic vessels and nerve supply
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papillary layer
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more superficial dermal region composed of areolar connective tissue; very uneven w/ fingerlike projections from its superior surface (dermal papillae - which attach it to the epidermis); produce fingerprints (unique patterns of epidermal ridges); abundant capillary networks furnish nutrients for the epidermal layers and allow heat to radiate to the skin surface; pain and touch receptors (meissner;s corpuscles) are found here; heavily invested with collagenic and elastic fibers
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reticular layer
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deepest skin layer; composed of dense irregular connective tissue and contains many arteries and veins, sweat and sebaceous glands, and pressure receptors (Pacinian corpuscles); heavily invested with collagenic and elastic fibers
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skin color
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result of amount of melanin, carotene, and degree of oxygenation of the blood; may be an importance diagnostic tool
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erythema (diagnosis from skin color)
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red skin color - caused by 1st degree burns, increased blood pressure
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anemia (diagnosis from skin color)
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pale color
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hypoxia (diagnosis from skin color)
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cyanotic (blue)
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hepatitis/jaundice (diagnosis from skin color)
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orange color
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addison's disease
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bronzing of the skin
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1st degree burns
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epidermis (e.g. sunburn)
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2nd degree burns
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extends into dermis (e.g. blisters)
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3rd degree burns
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both layers of the skin are destroyed
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accessory organs of skin
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cutaneous glands, hair, nails (all derivatives of the epidermis); reside in the dermis; originate from the stratum basale and grown downward into the deeper skin regions
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nails
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hornlike derivatives of the epidermis
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body of the nail
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visible attached portion
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free edge of the nail
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portion of nail that grows out away from the body
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root of the nail
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part that is embedded in the skin and adheres to an epithelial nail bed
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nail folds
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skin folds that overlap the borders of the nail
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eponychium
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thick proximal nail fold commonly called the cuticle
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nail bed
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extension of the stratum basale beneath the nail
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nail matrix
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the thickened proximal part of the nail bed containing germinal cells responsible for nail growth; as matrix produces nail cells, they become heavily keratinized and die; nails, like hairs, are mostly nonliving material
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lunula of the nail
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proximal region of the thickened nail matrix which appears as a white crescent; nails are transparent and nearly colorless everywhere else but appear pink because of blood supply in the underlying dermis
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hair
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found over entire body surface except thick-skinned areas, parts of external genitalia, nipples, and the lips; consists of a medulla (central region surrounded first by the cortex and then by a protective cuticle); color is a manifestation of the amount and kind of melanin pigment w/in the hair cortex;
-root-portion enclosed w/in follicle; -shaft-portion projected from the scalp surface -hair bulb-collection of well-nourished germinal epithelial cells at basal end of follicle; as daughter cells are pushed further away from growing region, the die and become keratinized; bulk of hair shaft is dead material |
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follicle
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structure formed from both epidermal and dermal cells;
-inner epithelial root sheath-consists of internal and external parts that are enclosed by thickened basement membrane and connective tissue root sheath (which is essentially dermal tissue); -papilla-small nipple of dermal tissue that protrudes into the hair bulb from the connective tissue sheath and provides nutrition to the growing hair |
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arrector pili muscle
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small bands of smooth muscle cells connect each hair follicle to the papillary layer of the dermis; when contracted (during cold or fright), slanted hair follicle is pulled upright, dimpling the skin surface with goose bumps; activity also exerts pressure on the sebaceous glands surrounding the follicle, causing a small amount of sebum to be released
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cutaneous glands
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fall primarily into 2 categories:
1. sebaceous glands 2. sweat glands -cutaneous pertains to skin |
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sebum
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product of sebaceous glands; mixture of oily substances and fragmented cells that acts as a lubricant to keep the skin soft and moist (also keeps hair from becoming brittle)
-blackhead - accumulation of dried sebum, bacteria, and melanin from epithelial cells in the oil duct |
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sebaceous (oil) glands
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found nearly all over the skin, except for palms and soles; ducts usually empty into a hair follicle, but some open directly on skin surface; product of gland = sebum; become particularly active during puberty when more male hormones (androgens) are produced, thus skin tends to become oilier during this period
-acne is an active infection of these glands |
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sweat (sudoriferous) glands
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widely distributed exocrine glands; outlets are epithelial openings called pores; categorized by composition of their secretions (eccrine and apocrine glands)
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eccrine glands
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aka merocrine sweat glands; distributed all over; produce clear perspiration consisting of water, salts, and urea; under control of nervous system results in body's heat regulating apparatus; secrete perspiration when ext. temp is high; when evaporated, excess body heat is carried with it; evaporation of greater amounts provides an efficient means of dissipating body heat when the capillary cooling system is not sufficient or is unable to maintain body temp homeostasis
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apocrine glands
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found predominantly in axillary and genital areas; secrete milky protein-and-fat rich substance (also containing water, salts, urea) that is an excellent nutrient medium for microorganisms typ. found on skin; may be analogous to the pheromone-producing scent glands of other animals because they enlarge and recede with phases of female menstrual cycles
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skeleton (functions)
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1. support and protect
2. provides system of levers w/ which the skeletal muscles work to move the body 3. store lipids and many minerals 4. red marrow cavities provide a site for hematopoiesis |
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axial skeleton
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1 of 2 divisions of the skeleton; consists of the bones that lie around the body's center of gravity
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appendicular skeleton
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1 of 2 divisions of the skeleton; consists of linbs or appendages
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kinds of osseous tissue bone is composed of
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1. compact; smooth and homogeneous
2. spongy; small bars of bone w/s lots of open space |
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long bones
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longer than they are wide; generally consists of a shaft w/ heads at either end; composed predominantly of compact bone
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short bones
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typically cubed shaped; contain more spongy bone than compact bone
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flat bones
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generally thin; consists of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone; many are curved (like bones of the skull)
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irregular bones
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those which do not fall in any of the other 3 categories
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sesamoid bones
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special types formed in tendons (e.g. patella)
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wormian/sutural bones
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tiny bones b/t cranial bones; not included in 206 bone count
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bone markings
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reveal where bones form joints with other bones, where skeletal muscles, tendons, and ligaments were attached, and where blood vessels and nerves passed
-consist of 2 categories: projections and processes |
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periosteum
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fibrous membrane covering of bone; many penetrate into the bone
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hardness and flexibility of bone are due to...
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inorganic calcium salts deposited in the ground substance and organic elements of the matrix, (particularly the collagen fibers) respectively
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central(Haversian)canal of bone
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run parallel to the axis; carries blood vessels, nerves, and lymph vessels through the bony matrix
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osteocytes
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mature bones cells loacted in lacunae
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lacunae
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chambers that enclose osteocytes
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osteon (Haversian) system
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a central canal and all the concentric lamellae surring it
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canaliculi
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tiny canals radiating outward from a central canal to the lacunae of the first lamella and then from lamella to lamella
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perforating (Volkmann's) canals
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canals which run into the compact bone and marrow cavity at right angles to the shaft; they complete the communication pathway b/t the bone interior and external surface
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endochondral ossification
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uses hyaline cartilage "bones" as patterns for bone formation
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7 types of cartilage and their structure/function
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1. articular-cover the bone ends at movable joints
2. costal-connecting the ribs to the sternum 3. laryngeal-largely constructs the larynx 4. tracheal/bronchial-reinforce other passageways of the respiratory system 5. nasal-support the external nose 6. intervertebral-separate and cushin bones of the spine 7. cartilage supporting the external ear |
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what makes up cartilage tissue?
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primarily water; is fairly resilient; contains NO nerves or blood vessels
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3 cartilage tissue types
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hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
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hyaline cartilage
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most abundant cartilage; looks like frosted glass; provides sturdy support when some resilience or "give"; chondrocytes appear spherical and collagen fibers are the only fiber in the matrix
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elastic cartilage
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"hyaline cartilage with more elastic fibers"; more flexibe; tolerates repeated bending; e.g ears and epiglottis
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fibrocartilage
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consists of rows of chondrocytes alternating with rows of thick collagen fibers; always found where hyaline cartilage joings a tendon or ligament; can withstand heavy compression; e.g intervertebral discs and knee joint
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2 sets of bones that make up the skull
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cranium (protect brain tissue) and facial (form base for facial muscles)
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articulations = ? and perform 2 functions
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joints;
1. hold bones together 2. allow the rigid skeletal system some flexibility so that gross body movements can occur |
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3 types of joints based on FUNCTION
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1. synarthroses-immovable joints (e.g skull (the sutures))
2. amphiarthroses-slightly movable joints (e.g symphysis pubis) 3. diarthroses-freely movable joints (e.g all synovial joints) |
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3 types of joints based on STRUCTURE
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1. fibrous-joined by fibrous tissue; no cavity present; most are synarthrotic and permit virtually no movement; 2 major types: sutures and syndesmoses
2. cartilaginous-articulating bone ends are connected by a plate or pad of this cartilage; no joint cavity; 2 major types: synchondroses and symphyses; e.g sync.-b/t ribs, symp.-pubic area 3. synovial-contains capsule w/ synovial fluid; allows for more complex movements (all are diarthroses); 6 TYPES |
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syn.jnt. 1 - plane (gliding)
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flat, slightly curved; allows sliging movements in 1 or 2 planes (e.g between carpals)
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syn.jnt. 2 - hinge
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rounded process of one bone fits into the concave surface of another; usually allows flexion and extension (e.g b/t humerus and radius/ulna, elbow)
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syn.jnt. 3 - pivot
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rounded/conical surface of one bonde articulates w/ shallow depression or foramen in another bone; allow uniaxial rotation (e.g atlas & axis, radius & ulna proximal ends)
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syn.jnt. 4 - condoyloid (ellipsoidal)
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oval condyle of one bone fits into an ellipsoidal depression in another bone, allowing biaxial movement (e.g b/t metacarpals & proximal phalanges)
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syn.jnt. 5 - saddle
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articulating surfaces are saddle-shaped; artic. surface of one bone is convex, and reciprocal surface is concave (e.g only 2 in the only body: R&L between trapezium; metacarpal #1)
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syn.jnt. 6 - ball and socket
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ball-shaped head of one bone fits into a cuplike depression of another; miltiaxial joints, allows movement in all directions and pivotal rotation (e.g b/t femur and acetabulum, humerus and glenoid cavity)
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flexion
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decreasing angle at a joint; reduces distance b/t the 2 bones
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extension
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increasing angle at a joint and distance b/w two bones or parts of the body; hyperextension can occur
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ABduction
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movement away from midline (generally on the frontal plane or the fanning movement of fingers or toes)
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ADduction
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movement towards the midline (opposite of abduction)
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rotation
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movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis w/o lateral or medial displacement
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circumduction
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a combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction (e.g shoulder); proximal end remains stationary while distal end moves in a circle
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pronation
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movement of palm of hand from anterior or upward-facing position to posterior or downward-facing position
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supination
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movement of palm of hand from a posterior position to an anterior position; "holding a bowl of soup"
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inversion
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movement that results in the medial turning of the sole of foot
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eversion
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movement that results in the lateral turning of the sole of foot; opposite of inversion
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dorsiflexion
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movement of ankle joint in a dorsal direction (e.g standing on one's heels)
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plantar flexion
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movement of ankle joint in which the foot is flexed downward (e.g standing on one's toes or pointing toes)
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