Industrial Organizational Psychology

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transfer of training

Back 1

- concept dealing with whether training is actually applied in the work setting.

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practice effects

Back 2

employee training: is a planned effort by an organization to facilitate the learning, retention, and transfer of job-related behavior.

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fundamental issues in employee training (MQs)

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social learning theory: learning theory that emphasizes the observational learning of behavior.

modeling: learning that occurs through the observation and imitation of the behavior of others.

cognitive theories of learning: learning theories that emphasize that humans are information processors.

Key issues in the success of training problems: transfer of training, trainee readiness, training program structure.

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needs analysis

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DOPT

the organizational level (the needs and goals of the organization), the task level (the requirements for performing the task), and the person level (the skills and knowledge required to do the job). An additional analysis can be done at the demographic level (determining training needs for specific demographic groups).

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On site / Off site training methods (MQs)

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on-site methods: (JAVO)
on-the-job training: an employee training method of placing a worker in the workplace to learn firsthand about a job.
apprenticeship: a training technique, usually lasting several years, that combines on-the-job experience with classroom instruction.
vestibule training: training that uses a separate area adjacent to the work area to simulate the actual work setting.
job rotation: a method of rotating workers among a variety of jobs to increase their breadth of knowledge

Off-site methods: (BASSPC)
- seminars: a common training method in which an expert provides job-related information in a classroom like setting
- audiovisual instruction: the use of films, videotapes, and other electronic media to convey material
- behavior modeling training: a training method that exposes trainees to role models performing appropriate and inappropriate work behaviors and their outcomes and then allows trainees to practice modeling the appropriate behaviors.
- simulation: training that replicates job conditions without placing the trainee in the actual work setting
- programmed instruction: self-paced individualized training in which trainees are provided with training materials and can test how much they have learned.
- computer-assisted instruction: programmed instruction delivered by computer that adapts to the trainee's learning rate

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management training methods

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- problem-solving case study: a management training technique that presents a real or hypothetical organizational problem that trainees attempt to solve
- role-playing: a management training exercise that requires trainees to act out problem situations that often occur at work.
- management games: a management training technique using scaled-down enactments of the operation and managements of organizations.
- conference: an unstructured management training technique in which participants share ideas, information, and problems; also called a group discussion.
- action learning: teams assembled to work on a company-related problem or issue to learn by doing.
- mentoring: a training program in which an inexperienced worker develops a relationship with an experienced worker who serves as an advisor
- coaching: a one-on-one relationship where a consultant helps an executive improve performance

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evaluating training programs (MQs)

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reaction criteria: measures of the impressions of trainees, including their assessments of the program's value, the amount of learning they received, and their enjoyment of the program.
- learning criteria: measures of the amount of learning that has taken place.
- behavioral criteria: measures of the amount of newly learned skills displayed once the trainee has returned to the job.
- results criteria: measures the outcomes that are important to the organization, such as increased trainee work output as expressed by production rates, dollar sales figures, or quality of work.

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adult learning theory

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- developed out of a need for a specific theory of how adults learn.

several assumptions:
- they need to know why they are learning something
- need to be self-directed
- bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation
- enter the learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning
- motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.

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steps in training programs (MQs)

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1) assess training needs
2) establish training objectives
3) develop and test training materials
4) implement training program
5) evaluate training program

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diversity training

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- seek to raise employees' awareness of diversity issues, to try to increase understanding of people from other backgrounds and cultures, and to strive to change negative attitudes and behaviors.

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definition of motivation

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the force that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior

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Maslow's needs hierarchy

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lowest to HIGHEST

- Physiological needs: the basic survival needs of food, water, air, sleep, and sex
- Safety needs: the needs for physical safety (need for shelter) and needs related to psychological security
- Social needs: the need to be accepted by others and needs for love, affection, and friendship
- Esteem needs: the needs to be recognized for accomplishments and to be admired and respected by peers
- self-actualization needs: the needs to reach one's highest potential and to attain a sense of fulfillment; highest level of needs

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McClelland's achievement motivation

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theory: emphasizes the importance of 3 needs - achievement, power, and affliction - in determining worker motivation.

- achievement: the compelling drive to succeed and to get the job done
- power: the need to direct and control the activities of others and to be influential
- affliction: the desire to be liked and accepted by others

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reinforcement theory

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- the theory that behavior is motivated by it's consequences.

- a consequence that follows a behavior and serves to increase the motivation to perform that behavior again is a reinforcer.

- positive: desirable events that strengthen the tendency to respond
-negative: events that strengthen a behavior through the avoidance of an existing negative state

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reinforcement schedules

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- fixed-interval schedule: reinforcement that follows the passage of a specified amount of time
- variable-interval schedule: reinforcement that follows the passage of a specified amount of time, with exact time of reinforcement varying
- fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement that is contingent on the performance of a fixed number of behaviors
- variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement that depends on the performance of a specified but varying number of behaviors.

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goal setting theory

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- the motivational theory that emphasizes the setting of specific and challenging performance goals

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Herzberg's 2 factor theory

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- proposes that 2 factors - motivation and hygiene - are important in determining worker satisfaction and motivation.

- motivators: elements related to job content that, when present, lead to job satisfaction
- hygiene: elements related to job context that, when absent, cause job dissatisfaction

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job characteristics model

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- a theory that emphasizes the role that certain aspects of jobs play in influencing work motivation

- skill variety: the degree to which a job requires the worker to use a variety of abilities and skills to perform work-related tasks.
- task identify: the degree to which a job requires the completion of an entire job or function.
- task significance: the degree to which a job has substantial impact on other people within the organization.
- autonomy: the degree to which the job gives the worker freedom and independence to choose how to schedule and carry out the necessary tasks
- feedback: the degree to which the job allows the worker to receive direct and clear info about the effectiveness of performance.

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equity theory

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- a theory that workers are motivated to reduce perceived inequities between work inputs and outcomes

- inputs: elements that worker invests in a job, such as experience and effort
- outcomes: those things that a worker expects to receive from a job, such as pay and recognition

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SMART goals

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Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results oriented
Time bound

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expectancy theory

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- a cognitive theory of motivation that states that workers weigh expected costs and benefits of particular courses before they motivated to take action

three core components:
- valence: the desirability of an outcome to an individual
- instrumentality: the perceived relationship between the performance of a particular behavior and the likelihood of receiving a particular outcome
- expectancy: the perceived relationship between the individual's effort and performance of a behavior

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motivation and performance

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- motivation is central to any discussion of worker behavior because it is believed that it has a direct link to good work performance.

- it is assumed that the motivated worker is the productive worker

- this may not always be true because many other factors can affect productivity independent of the effects of worker motivation.

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global vs. facet approach

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global: views job satisfaction as an overall construct

facet: views job satisfaction as made up of individual elements, or facets

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job satisfaction, performance, & commitment

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job satisfaction: the positive and negative feelings and attitudes about one's job

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measurement of job satisfaction

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- regardless of the approach, it is important to bear in mind the difficulties encountered in attempting to define the factors that may influence satisfaction, as well as the difficulties inherent in trying to measure any attitude

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organizational commitment

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- a worker's feelings and attitudes about the entire work organization.
(Organizational Commitment Questionnaire)

- affective commitment: emotional commitment
- continuance commitment: stay with company due to costs of leaving
- normative commitment: sense of duty/obligation to stay

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absenteeism

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- when employees miss work because they want to do something else

- calling in sick to take a 3 day weekend or taking the day off to run errands or go shopping

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turnover

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- workers' self-reported intentions to leave their jobs

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increasing job satisfaction and commitment (MQs)

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- changes in job structure
(job rotation, enlargement, enrichment)
- changes in pay structure
(skill-based pay, merit pay, gainsharing, profit-sharing)
- flexible work schedules
(compressed work weeks, flextime)
- benefits programs
(health care options, retirement plans, career development, child care)

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organizational citizenship behaviors

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work overload

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- a common source of stress resulting when a job requires excessive speed, output, or concentration

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underutilization

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- a source of stress resulting from workers feeling that their knowledge, skills, or energy are not being fully used

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sources of worker stress (MQs)

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work task stressors:
- work overload
- underutilization

work role stressors:
- job ambiguity
- lack of control
- physical work condition
- interpersonal stress
- emotional labor
- harassment
- organizational change
- work-family conflict (balance)

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person-organization fit

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- the match between a worker's abilities, needs, and values, and organizational demands, rewards, and values.

- found to have a positive correlation with organizational commitment and a negative correlation with turnover

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defining worker stress

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- involves physiological and/or psychological reactions to events that are perceived to be threatening or taxing

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effects of worker stress (MQs)

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- stress related illness include ulcers, colitis, high blood pressure, heart disease, migraine headaches, and stress can worsen common colds and infections

- job burnout: withdrawal from the organization
burnout occurs in 3 phases:
1) emotional exhaustion
2) depersonalization
3) feelings of low personal accomplishment

Front 37

stress and performance

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eu-stress: good stress

Front 38

coping with worker stress

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individual coping strategies:
- exercise
- meditation
- cognitive restructuring
- more effective time management
- vacation time and voluntary absences

organizational coping strategies:
- improving person-job fit
- employee training and orientation
- increase employees' sense of control
- eliminating punitive management
- removing hazardous work conditions
- providing a supportive work environment
- improving organizational communication

Front 39

measurement of worker stress

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- physiological: focus on measuring signs of physiological arousal and strain that accompany stress
- self-report: ask people to report their own perceived stress
- stressful life events: significant events in a person's recent history that can cause stress
- person-environment fit: the match between a worker's abilities, needs, and values, and organizational demands, rewards, and values.

Front 40

strategies for cultivating employee strengths