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176 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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What are prokaryote capsules and slime layers known as?
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Glycocalyx.
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What are prokaryote capsules?
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Layers of polysaccharides that lie outside and cover the cell wall.
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What do prokaryote capsules do?
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Protect the bacteria from phagocytosis, desiccation, viral infection and hydrophobic toxic materials.
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Are capsules well organized or unorganized?
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Well organized.
Slime layers are unorganized. |
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What are flagella?
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Thread-like motor appendage(s).
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How many flagellum are on an amphitrichous prokaryote?
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One at each pole.
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How many flagellum are on a lophotrichous prokaryote?
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A cluster (or tuft) at each or one end.
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What is a peritrichous prokaryote?
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A prokaryote that has a relatively even distribution of flagellum across the bacteria.
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What does a prokaryotic cell wall do?
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Provides protection from osmotic lysis. It also provides the characteristic shape of the prokaryote.
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T/F - The prokaryotic cell wall is a periplasmic space that contains a variety of proteins.
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True.
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What do proteins stored in the cell wall of a prokaryote do?
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Acquisition nutrients, transport electrons, synthesize peptidoglycan, or modify toxic compounds.
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What is plasmolysis?
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When the plasma membrane shrinks away from the cell wall in hypertonic habitats.
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What is a gram-positive cell wall in a prokaryote?
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A thick layer of peptidoglycan and large amounts of teichoic acids.
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What is a gram-negative cell wall in a prokaryote?
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A thin layer of peptidoglycan and an outer layer of membrane-composed lipids.
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What is the purpose of a lipopolysaccharide (found in a gram-negative prokaryote cell wall)?
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To protect the cell wall and act as an endotoxin.
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Prokaryotes have a bilayered phospholipid cell membrane.
What are the two layers? |
Hydrophilic surface (interacts with water) and a hydrophobic interior (insoluable in water)
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T/F - Prokaryotic plasma membranes contain sterols.
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False.
Most plasma membranes lack sterols. |
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T/F - Prokaryotic membranes are unorganized, symmeticral, stiff and inactive.
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False.
The membranes are highly organized, asymmetric, flexible and dynamic. |
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What is the main purpose of a prokaryotic cell membrane?
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To retain the cytoplasm and separate the cell from it's environment.
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What kind of barrier is a prokaryotic cell membrane?
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Selectively permeable barrier that allows some molecules to pass in or out of the cell while preventing others.
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What crucial metabolic processes occur in a prokaryotic cell membrane?
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Respiration, photosynthesis, lipid synthesis and cell wall synthesis.
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What do the special receptor molecules in a prokaryotic cell membrane do?
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Enable detection of and response to chemicals in the surroundings.
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Prokaryotic bacteria with high respiratory activity may also have extensive infoldings that provide what?
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A large surface area for greater metabolic activities.
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What is a prokaryotic cytoplasm?
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The substance between the membrane and nucleoid.
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Does a prokaryotic cytoplasm have a cytoskeleton?
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No, but it does have a cytoskeleton-like system of proteins.
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What is a prokaryotic inclusion body (or cell inclusion)?
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Granules of organic or inorganic material that are stockpiled by the cell for future use.
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What are prokaryotic magnetosomes found in the cytoplasm used for?
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They are inclusion bodies that store iron in the form of magnetite. Some bacteria use the iron to orient in the earth's magnetic field.
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What are ribosomes found in the cytoplasm of a prokaryote?
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Complex structures consisting of protein and RNA.
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T/F - Ribosomes found in prokaryotes are identical to those found in eukaryotes.
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False.
They are usually similar in structure to but smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes. |
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Where are chromosomes found in a prokaryote?
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In the irregularly-shaped nucleoid region of the cytoplasm.
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What is the chromosome found in a bacteria prokaryotic cytoplasm?
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An effectively packed DNA molecule that is looped and coiled extensively.
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What are the plasmids found in a prokaryotic cytoplasm?
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Another small, closed, circular DNA molecule.
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Can the plasmid found in prokaryotic cytoplasm coexist and replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome?
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Yes.
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Is a prokaryotic plasmid required for bacterial growth and reproduction.
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No.
But they can carry genes that give the bacteria a selective advantage such as drug resistance or enhanced metabolic activities. |
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What is an endospore?
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A special, resistant, dormant structure formed by some bacteria.
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Why would a prokaryotic bacteria create an endospore?
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To resist harsh environmental conditions.
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What is another word for spore formulation?
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Sporulation.
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When does formulation (or sporulation) take place?
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When growth ceases because of lack of nutrients.
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What are the three stages of a prokaryotic sporulation?
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Activation, germination, and outgrowth.
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What happens during the activation, germination and outgrowth stages of sporulation?
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Activation is preparation of the endospore, germination is the breaking of the dormant state, and outgrowth is the emergence of the new vegetative cell.
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T/F - Eukaryotes lack a nucleus and are membrane-bound.
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True.
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T/F - Eukaryotes are smaller and simpler in structure than prokaryotic cells.
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False.
Eukaryotes are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells |
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What three cell structures do eukaryotes have that prokaryotes have as well?
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Cytoplasm, chloroplasts and ribosomes.
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What does the eukaryotic cell nucleus contain?
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DNA, RNA and some proteins.
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What is the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells referred to as?
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The powerhouses of eukaryotic cells.
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What are chloroplasts found in eukaryotic cells used for?
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Carrying out photosynthesis
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What are ribosomes found in eukaryotic cells used for?
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Provide sites for protein synthesis.
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What does the endoplasmic reticulum do in an eukaryotic cell?
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Forms the vesicles that transport lipids and proteins to the Golgi Apparatus.
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Is a fungi cell structure differentiated or undifferentiated?
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It is undifferentiated.
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Fungi cellular walls are not made of cellulose. What are they made of instead, and what other skeletons are made of it?
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Chitin, which is also found in insects and arthroprod skeletons.
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Zygomycetes have an undivided cytoplasm and are found in what?
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Molds.
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Ascomycetes have partially divided cytoplasms and are found in what?
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Cup fungi and blue molds.
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Basidiomycetes have fully divided cytoplasms and are found in what?
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Mushrooms.
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Fungi (eukaryotes) can reproduce by growing cylindrical, thread-like structures. What are these called?
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Hyphae.
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Vegetative spores (conidia) reproduce in what two different ways?
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Asexual or mycelial fragmentation.
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T/F - Sexual reproduction via meiosis exists in all fungal phyla.
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True.
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In what two types of eukaryotic fungi are spore-containing structures found in?
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Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes.
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What does homothallic mean?
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The spore can reproduce with any other individual or itself.
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What does heterothallic mean?
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Eukaryote spore-containing structures can only reproduce with the opposite mating type.
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What is anastomosis?
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When sexually reproducing individuals fuse their hyphae into an interconnected network to initiate the sex cycle.
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What is the term for when spores are actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures?
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Spore dispersal.
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What kingdom is algae classified in?
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Protiste.
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T/F - Algae conduct photosynthesis.
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True.
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Algae conducts photosynthesis with a membrane-bound structure called what?
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Chloroplast.
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Are cyanobacteria included among algae?
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Yes.
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What do cyanobacteria conduct photosynthesis in instead of using the traditional eukaryotic organelles?
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Their cytoplasm.
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When some light gathered by algae and stored in the form ATP, what is used?
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Photosynthetic apparati.
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What does ATP stand for?
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Adenosine triphosphate.
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Algae use energy to remove what from the water?
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Electrons.
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When algae harvest electrons from water, what are they used for?
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Electrons are used to turn carbon dioxide into organic substances.
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When algae utilizes electrons to turn carbon dioxide into organic substances, what is that process called?
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The Calvin cycle.
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What are the three main means of locomotion eukaryotic protozoa employ?
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Amoeboid, ciliary and flagellar.
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Protozoan amoeboid locomotion divids the cytoplasm into two parts: a gel and a sol. What are their formal names?
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Ectoplasm (gel) and endoplasm (sol).
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T/F - In amoeboid movement the cell wall expands.
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True.
The cell wall expands and the pseudopodium is extended forward. |
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In ciliary locomotion of protozoa coordination is achieved through what?
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Metachronal rhythm.
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T/F - Vacuoles are a space within a cell that contains cytoplasm, is lined with membrane, and filled with fluid.
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False.
Vacuoles are empty of cytoplasm, lined with membrane, and filled with fluid. |
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Cytoplasmic organelles perform what functions?
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Storage, ingestion, digestion, excretion and expulsion (of excess water)
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Hint: most of the words end in "ion"
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Macronutrients and micronutrients are required in what amounts?
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Macronutrients in large amounts, micronutrients in small.
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T/F - All cells require carbon.
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True.
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T/F - Most eukaryotes require organic compounds as their source of carbon.
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False.
Most prokaryotes require organic compounds as their source of carbon. |
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A typical cell is what percentage of carbon?
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50%.
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What does autotroph mean?
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A microorganism that is able to build all of their cellular structures from carbon dioxide.
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Growth factors are organic compounds that share what with trace metals?
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The fact that they are required in only small amounts by certain organisms.
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What are the most commonly required growth factors?
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Vitamins.
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The generation time of a given organism in culture is dependent on what?
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The growth medium and incubation conditions used.
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What are the three things that represent Cardinal temperature?
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Minimum temperature of growth, optimum temperature of growth, and a maximum temperature of growth.
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Temperature affects what part of an organism?
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The cytoplasmic membrane.
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What are the two ways temperature can negatively affect a cytoplasmic membrane?
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It either stiffens the cytoplasmic membrane to the point it no longer functions properly in nutrient transport, or can no longer develop a proton motive force.
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Organisms that grow optimally at a low pH (below 6) are called what?
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Acidophiles.
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Organisms showing optimal growth at high pH (above 9) are called what?
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Alkaliphiles.
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Optimal pH for growth of any organism is a measure of the pH for the intercellular or extracellular environment?
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The extracellular environment only.
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The majority of microorganisms have an optimum pH for growth between 6 and 9, and are called what?
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Neutrophiles.
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What grows at full oxygen tensions (21% O2) and respire oxygen in their metabolisms?
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Aerobes.
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When do microaerobes use oxygen?
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Only when it is present at levels reduced from that in the air.
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What are organisms that cannot respire oxygen called?
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Anaerobes.
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What are organisms that can tolerate oxygen and grow in its presence even though they cannot use it called?
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Aerotolerant anaerobes.
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What are organisms that are inhibited or killed by oxygen called?
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Oblicate anaerobes.
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What is selective media used for?
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Helping growth of certain organisms in a mixed population by using an ingredient that inhibits others but not that one.
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What is enrichment media used for?
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Helping give nutrients to a microorganism that it's competitors cannot use.
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Differential media does what?
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Shows a visible difference between or among groups of microorganisms but does not inhibit or enhance growth.
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What is the difference between a pure culture and a mixed culture?
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A pure culture has only one microbial species. Mixed culture has two or more species formed colonies.
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T/F - Budding is an even cytoplasmic division practiced by yeasts as well as some bacteria.
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False.
Budding is an uneven cytoplasmic division practiced by yeasts as well as some bacteria. |
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Binary fission is a form of what kind of reproduction, sexual or asexual?
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Asexual reproduction?
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What uses binary fission to reproduce?
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All prokaryotes, some protozoa, and some organelles within eukaryotic organisms.
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Mycelial growth is the filamentous growth that results when cells do not what?
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Separate after division.
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What is the lag phase of a microbial population?
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When it is inoculated into a fresh medium and growth is paused as the cells biosynthesize.
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Which grow faster, prokaryotes or eukaryotes?
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Prokaryotes grow faster than eukaryotic microorganisms.
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What is the most common total cell count method?
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The microscopic cell count, which is done on either samples dried on slides or samples in liquid.
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What is a flow cytometer used for?
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Counting individual cells using a laser beam.
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What is another name for viable cell counting?
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Plate count.
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What does viable cell counting enumerate?
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Cells able to divide and form offspring.
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What are the two ways of performing a plate count?
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Spread-plate and pour-plate methods.
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What is turbidity measured with?
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A spectrophotometer.
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What is actually assessed in turbidimetric measurement?
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Total cell mass, which is proportional to cell number.
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What is turbidity assessment used for?
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Measuring the number of cells in a growing culture.
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In an enzyme-catalyzed reaction, the enzyme combines with a reactant called what?
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Substrate.
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T/F - Most enzymes are proteins and polymers of amino acids.
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True.
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Most enzymes contain small nonprotein molecules that participate in catalysis but are not themselves substrates. What are they called?
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Prosthetic groups and coenzymes.
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Chemosynthesis is the biological conversion of what and other nutrients into matter, instead of using sunlight?
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Carbon dioxide or methane.
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Photosynthesis is a process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using energy from what?
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Sunlight.
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Photoautotrophs create their own what?
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Food.
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What are some examples of photoautotrophs?
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Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.
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The photosynthesis process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by what?
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Chlorophylls.
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Where are chlorophylls stored in plants?
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Organelles called chloroplasts.
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Where are chlorophylls stored in bacteria?
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The're embedded in the plasma membrane.
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Cellular respiration is a series of processes that allows the cells to release energy in what?
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Glucose.
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Aerobic is the process by which the energy from glucose is released in the presence of what?
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Oxygen.
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What kind of cellular respiration is when energy is released in the absence of oxygen?
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Anaerobic.
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Nucleic acids are biological molecules essential for what two substances?
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DNA and RNA.
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Who discovered nucleic acids?
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Friedrich Miescher in 1871.
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All living cells contain both DNA and what?
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RNA.
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T/F - Viruses contain either DNA or RNA but not usually both.
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True.
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DNA encodes for the production of what two substances?
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Amino acids and proteins.
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What are the two phases of protein synthesis?
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Transcription and translation.
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If an enzyme produces too much of one substance in the organism, that substance may act as an inhibitor for the enzyme and cause production to slow down. This is called what?
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Negative feedback.
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Enzymes can be regulated by what two things?
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Inhibitors and activators.
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T/F - Positive feedback mechanisms can effectively adjust the rate of synthesis of intermediate metabolites according to the demands of the cells.
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False.
Negative feedback mechanism. |
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Control of enzyme synthesis refers to controlling transcription of the what?
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mRNA needed.
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A set of genes transcribed as a polycistronic message that is collectively controlled by a regulatory protein is called what?
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Operon.
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What is the difference between an operon and a regulon?
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They're controlled by the same regulatory protein but transcribed by monocistronic message, not a polycistronic one.
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What is a genotype?
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An organism's full hereditary information, even if not expressed.
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What is a phenotype?
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An organism's actual observed properties (behavior, development, morphology, etc.)
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Genotype represents exact what?
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Genetic makeup.
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When two organisms with identical genotypes differ in their phenotypes it's called what?
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Monozygous (identical) twins.
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T/F - Identical twins share the same phenotype.
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False.
They share the same genotype. |
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How many chromosomes are found in the human egg and how many are found in human sperm?
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23 in each.
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When the cells are formed and begin to go through a special division, what is it called?
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Meiosis.
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After meiosis and the process of fertilization, the cells form what type of zygote?
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A diploid zygote.
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Human diploid cells have how many chromosomes?
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46.
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All mammals (with the exception of a few species) are haploid or diploid organisms?
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Diploid.
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Yeast and fungi are permanently haploid or diploid?
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Haploid.
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Male bees, wasps and ants are haploid or diploid organisms?
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Haploid.
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Induced mutations on the molecular level can be caused by what two factors?
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Chemicals and radiation.
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Point mutation is a simple change in one what of the gene sequence?
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Base.
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Frame-shift mutation in DNA is equivalent to what change in a sentence?
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Adding or removing one letter in each word.
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Cells read DNA in a how many "letter word?"
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Three-letter words.
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Deletion mutation in DNA is like deleting a full three-letter word in a sentence or just a single letter in a sentence?
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Deleting a word.
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Inversion mutation does what to an entire DNA section?
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Reverses it. This can happen to large regions of a chromosome containing several genes.
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Transformation is the process by which what pick up DNA from their environment?
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Bacteria. It usually comes from the remnants of DNA from other dead bacterial cells.
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DNA that enters a cell is single-stranded, the other strand being digested by what?
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Exonuclease.
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Conjugation is what kind of process involving bacteria?
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MATING!
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Genetic transfer in conjugation is from an F+ to an F- cell, and the genetic material transferred is what?
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The F factor itself.
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When a phage infects a bacterial cell it does what?
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Injects it's DNA into the cell.
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Transduction involves the exchange of DNA between bacteria using what as an intermediate?
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Bacterial viruses.
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What provides a mechanism for horizontal gene transfer within a population of microbes and typically provide a selective advantage under a given environmental state?
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Plasmids, yo!
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Plasmids can provide what with an ability to fix elemental nitrogen?
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Bacteria.
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What does mRNA stand for?
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Messenger RNA.
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What are the three categories of isolation and detection of viruses?
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Direct detection, indirect examination, and serology.
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Which uses a cell culture to determine if there is a virus present? Direct examination, indirect examination, or cell culture?
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Indirect examination.
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T/F - Most virus infections eventually result in the death of the host cell.
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True. The causes of death include cell lysis, alterations to the cell's surface membrane, and apoptosis.
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What is an oncogene?
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A gene that has the potential to cause cancer.
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What is a proto-oncogene?
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A normal gene that can become an oncogene due to mutations or increased expression.
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What happens when a proto-oncogene is activated?
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It becomes a tumor-inducing agent, an oncogene.
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What is another name for a live vaccine?
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Attenuated.
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What are viral proteins called?
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Antigens.
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What happens that makes antiviral drugs work?
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They consist of fake DNA building blocks called "nucleo side analogues" which are mistakenly incorporated into the virus genomes during replication.
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