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87 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Purpose of a system's engineer:
- produce systems that satisfy the customer's needs and expectations
- increase the probability of success
- reduce risk
- reduce total life-cycle cost
Systems engineering is both a ____ and a ____.
process and discipline

(like the study of English)
A systems engineer:

(list things they do)
- is responsible for the big picture
- knows process must be tailored for each project
- addresses the whole system life cycle, from birth to death
- often this means accepting tradeoffs by omitting certain tasks, which reduces cost but increases risk
- evaluates risk by asking "why"
What did Frankenstein get high marks for, that made him a good systems engineer?
-low cost
- high performane
- on schedule
- great reliability
What did Frankenstein get low marks for?
- total system test
- life cycle analysis
- risk management
Stages of the System Life Cycle (8):
Problem Statement
Requirements Discovery
Alternatives Investigation
System Design
Implementation
Integration and Test
Operations & Maintenance
Retirement & Replacement
Two Significant Stages:
_____ & _____ Design
Discovery & Process Design
Systems engineering is ____, not ____.
fractal, not linear

fractal- applied at levels of greater and greater detail
Foundation for Successful Projects (4 points):
- Complete the problem statement before defining the requirements.
- Avoid stating the problem in terms of solutions.
- Involve the customer in the process of defining the problem and the requirements.
- Quantify requirements and rank importance (requirements are often written qualitatively, use evaluation criteria and scoring functions to quantify them)
The decision maker must balance ____ with ____.
effort, confidence
Components of a Tradeoff Study (10):
- Problem Statement
- Evaluation Criteria
- Weights of Importance
- Alternative Solutions
- Evaluation data
- Scoring functions
- Normalize Scores (important, often forgotten)
- Combining Functions
- Preferred Alternatives
- Sensitivity Analysis
What is a good way to describe what a system should do? (part of system design)
list typical sequences of inputs and outputs as functions of time. known as a sequence diagram
Validation vs. Verification?
Validation: building the right system

Verification: building the system right
Types of Risk (4)
- system risk (performance, schedule and cost of the product)
- project risk
- business risk (financial and resource risks to the enterprise)
- Safety, environmental, and risks to the public
Risk Management: 4 ways to manage risk
- transfer
- eliminate
- accept
- mitigate
Definitions of Lean
" A systematic approach to identifying and eliminating waste (NVA activities) in a company's operations.
Lean emphasizes flowing the product at the pull of the customer."
How is lean implemented?
through both rapid and continuous improvement.
Kaizen
"kai" = little, or ongoing
"zen" = for the better, or good

small, continuous improvements
Value-Added Time
any activity that increases the market form or function of the product or service (things the customer is willing to pay for)
Non-Value Added Time (waste, or muda)
any activity or use of resources that does not add market form or function or is not necessary. (these activities should be reduced, integrated, simplified, or eliminated)
Typically, __% of all lead time is NVA.
95%!!
Hold all wastes in a:
CLOSED MITT
-complexity
-labor
-overproduction
-space
-energy
-defects
-materials
-idle materials
-transportation
-time
JIT Operating Tools (5)
-focused factories
-group technology
-setup reduction
-pull systems (kanban)
-line balancing
JIT Operating Principles (6)
-produce to exact customer demand
-eliminate waste
-produce one-at-a-time
-continuous improvement
-allow for no contingencies
-long-term emphasis
Four main segments of Lean:
- JIT
- Total Employee Involvement
- Total Quality Control
- Total Productive Maintenance
Two ways for a company to be centered:
Inside-out (finding customers for our products and services)

Outside-in (developing products and services to meet customer needs)
Ernest Dichter
hired by GM- proposed to design car from outside-in; found out that customers cant always tell you want they want; instead focused on "what your neighbor would buy"
WCM (Lean) is based on the most basic simple business concept : ____
KNOW YOUR CUSTOMER!
Four types of customer value:
-Unanticipated Value: "surprise" attributes that add value for the customer beyond typical desires or expectations

- Desired Value: attributes the customer doesn't necessarily expect, but knows about and appreciates if the experience includes them.

Expected Value: associated attributes the customer has come to take for granted as part of general business practice.

Basic Value: Absolute essential attributes of the customer's experience, either tangible (product) or intangible (serivce) or both
Four Major Commitments to the Customer:
- the customer will be responded to quickly
- the customer will set standards for product design and quality and these standards will be met
- the plant and equipment will be maintained to make quick customer response and perfect product quality possible
- people, the value adders, in the company will be empowered for making rapid, continuous improvement of quality and productivity to satisfy the customer's perception of value.
Just-in-Time (define)
JIT is a Lean production strategy with a new set of values aimed at continuous improvement with quality and productivity, with emphasis on manufacturing only what is needed, when it is needed, in the precise quantity needed.
Total Quality Control (define)
TQC is a Lean strategy of quality operation of the business around the theme "make it right the first time, and every time", with emphasis on defect prevention and the assurance of quality resting at the source: with the value-adders
Total Quality Control (definition)
TQC is a lean WCM strategy of quality operation of the business around the theme "make it right the first time, and every time," with emphasis on defect prevention and the assurance of quality resting at teh source: with value adders.
Components of TQC:
-Perfect Parts Every Time
- Operator Responsibility
- New Customer Definition
- Line Stop
- Visual Workplace

- SPC
- 5 Why's and a How
- Problem Solving
- Mistake-Proofing
- Fishbone & Pareto Charts
Total Productive Maintenance (definition)
TPM is a lean strategy of preventive maintenance aimed at maintaining a clean, organized working environment, and maintaining equipment so often and so thoroughly that it hardly ever breaks down.
Components of TPM:
-Housekeeping
- Work Organization
- Zero Equipment Breakdowns

- KEY: Predictive Maintenance

- if you know the mean-time-to-failure, you can replace components before they fail
Total Employee Involvement (definition):
TEI is a Lean strategy of quality and innovative operation of a business with all of the people in all areas of the company's organization becoming empowered business entrepreneurs to satisfy the customer's perception of basic, expected, desired, and unanticipated value.
Components of TEI:
- policies for a stable work environment
- developing motivation, trust, & team spirit
- empowering people

- behavioral safety
- team culture
Savings in converting from traditional manufacturing to Lean:
1/3 floor space
1/2 employees
Lean improves:
-productivity
-quality
-WIP
-floor space requirement
Five Components of Lean:
- Value Principle
- Value Stream Principle
- Flow Principle
- Pull Principle
- Perfection Principle
Value Principle (Lean)
(Identifying and focusing on value)
- identify the product value customers want and are willing to pay for
- identify necessary value-adding processes and perform them to perfection
- identify necessary non-value-adding processes and reduce them to a minimum
- identify unnecessary non-value-adding processes and eliminate them
Value Stream Principle (Lean):
(Identifying the chain of events necessary for product development, manufacturing, and distribution)

- focus on external consuming customers: upstream & downstream
- focus on external upstream suppliers and external downstream non-consuming customers
- focus on internal upstream suppliers and internal downstream customers
Flow Principle (Lean):
Two Major Objectives:
- move product components smoothly and quickly through parts fabrication, subassembly, and final assembly operations
- produce products and product components one-at-a-time, or in very small lot sizes, closely controlled by customer demand.

Objectives accomplished by:
- Locating manufacturing workcenters in parts fabrication, subassembly and final assembly close together
- balancing the work load for personnel performing in manufacturing workcenters.
- reducing the time necessary for the changeover or setup of equipment used in performing multiple operations
- maintaining equipment so that it is always ready to run when needed.
Pull Principle (Lean):
(the element which actuates, or springs, the manufacturing process into action)

- upstream supplier manufacturing operations do not "PUSH" work-in-process (WIP) onto downstream customer operations, causing the unnecessary building of WIP inventory
- on the contrary, downstream customer manufacturing operations must "PULL" needed WIP forward from upstream supplier operations-- a customer-actuated process
Perfection Principle (Lean):
(the relentless pursuit of never-ending improvement)

- learning the consuming customer's perception of product value.
- evaluating manufacturing processes- reducing or eliminating non-value-added processes
- identifying the critical chain of events in the value stream
- improving efficiency of flow and pull for identifying and eliminating muda (waste)
- conforming manufacturing cycle time to the required takt time.
- improving effectiveness of the team culture
JIT may be seen as a balance of ____ and ____.
Craftsmanship and Specialization

JIT:
- high mechanization
- semi-skilled
- multi-skilled
- high quality
- personal pride
- one-at-a-time
- interchangeability
- supply = demand
Some benefits of JIT, compared to Traditional manufacturing (paradigms):
- Productivity and quality can be achieved simo.
- Machine setup time is targeted at ten minutes or less.
- Small lot sizes lead to lower costs
- Inventory must be small (Just-in-Time)
- Production line is expected to be short
- Customer lead time is expected to be short

-ETC ETC ETC!!!
Six Operating Principles of JIT:
- Produce exact customer demand
- Eliminate Waste
- Produce one-at-a-time
- Continuous Improvement
- Allow for no contingencies
- Long-term emphasis
Select Operating Tools of JIT:
- focused factories
- group technology
- setup reduction
- pull systems (kanban)
- line balancing
- uniform scheduling
- quality circles
- computer integrated system
- innovative technologies
Customer wants quality products FAST.

Name the way the traditional manufacturing paradigm handles this, compared to JIT.
Old paradigm says to rely on:
- forecasting, exclusively
- long production runs and fixed rates

JIT Paradigm says to organize for:
- minimum customer notice
- short production runs and flexible rates
- physically linking processes
- meeting needs of customer at the next process.
Kanban system:

Customer's action provides 3 signals:
- alerts assemblers to pull needed materials from the kanban squares and begin the work cycle
- directs that a finished product be pulled downstream to the finished product kanban to replace the product purcahsed
- signals that all WIP be pulled downstream one workcenter
Two types of production planning:
- Anticipatory Planning- based on a prediction of customer demand (includes all forecasting models, anything that requires speculation)

- Order-based Planning- based on confirmed customer demand
Aspects of Anticipatory Planning:
- based exclusively on past sales and market research
- based on a speculative market
- dangerous if customer dynamics (customer perceptions) are ignored
- foundation for a "PUSH" system
- characterized by large lot production
- leads to overproduction
- results in buildup of WIP inventory
Aspects of Order-Based Planning:
- based on confirmed product orders
- triggered and maintained by demand
- parts produced to replace those in products actually sold
- overproduction and WIP inventory buildup are avoided
- Foundation of a PULL system
- Producing to exact customer demand: both internal and external
Who combined Order-based Planning and Anticipatory Planning?
Toyota

- conduct exhaustive market research
- highly accurate market forecasts
- annual projections broken down into monthly
- monthly projections broken down into weekly
- daily production tuned more precisely to confirmed orders
- final assembly adjusted daily to confirmed orders
- component production processes readjusted daily via the "pull" system (kanban)
What is waste?
That which adds cost without adding value. (Shingo)
Eight types of process waste
- Not utilizing the talents of your resources
- Waiting
- Over-production
- Process Waste
- Transport Waste
- Waste of Motion
- Defects
Name some less visible forms of waste:
- product failure in the field
- rush delivery costs
- time lost due to accidents
- excess inventory
- lack of parts
- past due receivables
Name two solutions to overproduction:
- do not operate at full capacity (capacity should be slightly greater than demand, seek out simpler versions of equipment)

- produce only what is needed at next process (customer) (as demand decreases, decrease output; adjust daily schedule of workers, utilizing cross-trained, multi-skilled workers)
Examples of overproduction in healthcare:
- Over-staffing
- Utilizing too many raw materials
- Distracted from main focus (nurses)
Examples of Waiting Waste in healthcare:
- waiting on lab results
- equipment location
- interruptions
Examples of Transportation Waste in healthcare:
- location of pharmacy
- poor layout (maze)
- accessibility (wheelchairs)
Examples of Process Waste in healthcare:
- RN & CNA both taking vitals
- Using oxygen meter for temp instead of thermometer.
Examples of Inventory Waste in healthcare:
- nursing shortage
- bed shortage
Examples of waste of motion in healthcare:
- equipment searching
- location of machines
Examples of defect waste in healthcare
- putting wrong drug in syringe
- running wrong test in lab
- not accounting for all items
What makes a good metric?
- something that measures:
- productivity, safety, turnover/job satisfaction

Different than outcomes
What does the focused theory principle do?
backs up lean with business principles
What are the three levels of control?
- fail safe
- preventive
- exclusionary
Advantages of producing one-at-a-time:
- inventory waste is avoided
- absence of WIP gives better visibility
- Production diversity can be customer driven
- Engineering change orders can be quickly responded to
- production throughput time is decreased
- production cycle time is decreased
- customer cycle time is decreased
- customer lead time is decreased
- manufacturing defects are discovered quickly
- less likely to have repetitive defects
What is bad about long production runs?
- can inflate prices, reducing competitiveness
- can cause production throughput and cycle times to be unnecessarily lengthy.
- can cause customer lead times to become longer than the allowable purcahse interval
Continuous Improvement
What is it not?
- project of the month
- a "crash program"
- Achieve 100%
- a process that ends
- a multi-task, multi-project, multi-
- just the manufacturing process

What is it?
- it is changing how the whole group thinks
- it is thinking in lots based on demand instead of production runs based on time
- it is employee getting immediate feedback on their job/workmanship, which gives them a heightened sense of awareness of current issues
Japanese Approach for Continuous Improvement
- Define your chain of events
- Define what should have happened
- Illustrate: Cause/Effect Diagrams
- Isolate single greatest issue/problem
- form plan & metric for evaluation
- execute
- obtain feedback and begin again
What is another continuous improvement method?
Six Sigma

goal: identify and finding solutions to problems in manufacturing- a five step process:

- define
- measure
- analyze
- improve
- control- standardizing

Six sigma is simply an extension of SPC
Six Sigma: Step 1
Define
-Determining the value customers expect from products and services.
- Comparing customer desired value with the value currently being provided. (Observing Manufacturing Processes, Recording Problem Frequencies, Establishing Problem Priorities)
Six Sigma: Step 2
Measure
- Determining precisely how products being produced compare with required standards. (Identifying waste existing in the manufacturing process, identifying extent of process variation from established control limits)
Six Sigma: Step 3
Analyze
- Analyze Measured Data to Discover Problem Root Causes.

- Promoting creative thinking within the team culture- brainstorming.
- Identifying and narrowing down problem root causes- Fishbone Charts
- Assuring that THE root cause is identified rather than settling for an intermediate problem cause, and providing clues as to How the Root cause can be eliminated- by asking the Five Why's and a How
Six Sigma: Step 4
Improve
- Assuring that problem root causes are overcome.

-Removing process waste by simplifying flow of parts, S/A's, and final assemblies- Team Culture, Focused Factories, and Group Technology
- Reducing Manufacturing Delays by Simplifying equipment changeovers- Setup Reduction
- Controlling WIP Inventory- Kanban
- Promoting a Clean, Organized Workplace- Housekeeping, Workplace Organization, 5S.
Six Sigma: Step 5
Control
- Maintaining standards expected by customers

- Assuring that the product production rate is equal to the customer demand rate - Takt Time
- Assuring that the output of upstream operations match required input of downstream operations- Line Balancing
- Preventing defects at the source- Mistake-Proofing (pokayoke)
- Monitoring behavior of process ranges and averages- SPC
Allow for no Contingencies

- explain strategy and how to make contingencies obsolete
Strategy
- We have extra material inventory available, just-in-case a supplier doesnt deliver on-time
- we have buffer stock on the line and in inventory, just-in-case irregularities occur
- we have extra super capacity, just-in-case a machine breaks down.
- we have extra people, just-in-case somebody doesn't show up for work

Making contingencies obsolete:
- create incentives to learn new strategies
- remove insurance that contingencies provide
- place people, equipment and material in a state of uniform stress (remove buffer stock from the production line, remove operators from the line)
Long Term Emphasis

Strategy & Benefits
Strategy
- Manufacture products enabling quick customer response- both external and internal customers
- eliminate all of the costly wastes from the system
- produce in small lots, cutting production throughput and customer lead times to a minimum
- wean ourselves of costly contingencies that protect us from facing and overcoming our problems
- accomplish all of this through never-ending improvement

Benefits:
- we can now produce more with less input into the system
- we can use the savings to fund additional improvements
- we will be seen as a competitor to reckon with
- our successes will provide enthusiasm for never-ending effort
What is a focused factory?
- a manufacturing layout dedicated to a single product family which maximizes overall productivity and quality while minimizing space and resource requirements (much like JIT)
Unfocused Factors (disadvantages)
- excess buffer stock is necessary to justify the distances between processes
- excess materials handling equipment is necessary
- excess storage space is required in aisles and vertical racks for WIP
- massive conveyor systems become necessary
- walls of inventory & miss-linked processes prevent operators from communicating or from visualizing the total process
- origin of defects is difficult to trace
Basic 4-step process to Focused Factories
- group products into product families
- determine equipment requirements for each product family
- layout equipment for each product family starting with final assembly
- cross-train each FF operator to perform all operations, where possible
Benefits of focused factories
- productivity improves because waste is removed and non-value-added activity is decreased
- production throughput time can start approaching value-added time
- the need for storage space, conveyor systems, and factory floor space is decreased
- the manufacturing process is less complex
- process control is easier due to greater factory visibility
- quality increases because processes are physically linked, providing immediate feedback when problems occur
- fewer layers of management and less supervision is required
- involved employees will generate more ideas
- greater output for less input equals greater profits
Group Technology
- equipment layout dedicated to the complete production of a family of parts, one-at-a-time, by physically linking all possible operations in the process