Idc - Psychology - Book - Chapter 7: Learning

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learning

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the process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors

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associative learning

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learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

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stimulus

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any event or situation that evokes a response

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respondent behavior

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behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

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operant behavior

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behavior that operates on the enviornment, producing consequences

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cognitive learning

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the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

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classical conditioning

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a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

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behaviorism

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the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

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neutral stimulus (NS)

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in classical conditioning, a stiumulus that elicits no response before conditioning

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unconditioned response (UR)

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in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occuring respone (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

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unconditioned stimulus (US)

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in clasical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers an unconditioned response (UR).

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conditioned response (CR)

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in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

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acquisition

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in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strgenthening of a reinforced response.

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higher-order conditioning

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a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

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extinction

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the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

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generalization

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the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

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discrimination

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in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

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operant conditioning

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a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

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law of effect

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Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

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operant chamber

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in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

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reinforcement

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in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

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shaping

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an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

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positive reinforcement

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increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

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negative reinforcement

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increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

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primary reinforcer

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an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

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conditioned reinforcer

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a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

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reinforcement schedule

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a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

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continuous reinforcement schedule

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reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

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partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

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fixed ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

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variable-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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fixed-interval schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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variable-interval schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

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punishment

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an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

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cognitive map

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a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

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latent learning

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learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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intrinsic motivation

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a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

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extrinsic motivation

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a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

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observational leraning

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learning by observing others

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modeling

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the process of observing and imitating a specific bahvior

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mirror neurons

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frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

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prosocial behavior

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positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

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neutral stimuli

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Events that the individual doing the action is exposed to, but does not associate with the subject in question (like in Pavlov's experiments with dogs and food: the dogs were exposed to certain stimulis, or events that were not connected with the food)

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Fixed-ratio schedules

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Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behavior after a set number of responses.

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Variable-ratio schedules

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Variable-ratio schedules provide reinforcers after a seemingly unpredictable number of responses.

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Fixed-interval schedules

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Fixed-interval schedules reinforce the first response after a fixed time period.

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Variable-interval schedules

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Variable-interval schedules reinforce the first response after varying time intervals.

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Positive punishment

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Administer something that's undesired. Example: Spray water on a barking dog; give a traffic ticket for speeding.

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Negative punishment

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End something that's desired. Example: Take away a misbehaving teen's driving privileges; revoke a library card for nonpayment of fines.