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298 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Name the different body shapes of fish. |
1. rover/predator (tuna, billfish, minnow) 2. Lie in wait Pred (bass, gar, pike, barracuda) 3. Surface-upturned mouth, dorsal far back, flat head (mosquito fish, killifish) 4. Bottom- flatfish (sole), rover- flat head, humpback, large pectorals (shark, catfish, sturgeon), clingers- small flathead, large pect, adhering structure (gobie, clingfish), hiders(darters, blennies) 5. DeepBodied-latcompress, pects high, move tight spaces (sunfish) 6. Eel Shape- elongate, small/nofins, small scales, elongate dorsal/anal fins (eels) |
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Mouth Positions |
1. Terminal- Large and at anterior end (catfish) 2. Sub-terminal- Mouth beneath snout (croaker) 3. Inferior- Mouth posterior to snout (shark, sturgeon) |
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Scale Types |
1. Placoid- Dermal denticles (sharks) 2. Ganoid- Rhombus shape (gar) 3. Cycloid-Circular ridges, overlap on fish (salmon and carp) 4. Ctenoid-Have radii, ctenii on exposed portion (perch) |
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Caudal Fin Types |
1. Round- Large s.a. for sharp turns and quick starts for avoiding predators, drag so not sustainable (clownfish) 2. Truncate- short bursts or constant slow swimming, less drag, bottom dwellers (killifish, flounder, sculpin) 3. Emarginate- effective acc. and maneuvering, less drag than previous types (remora) 4. Forked- constant swimming long distances, open water fish, low drag (pilotfish, menhaden) 5. Lunate- halfmoon, fast, accel, low drag, low maneuverability (tuna, swordfish) 6. Heterocercal- Asymmetrical, top lobe longer, lift, red. maneuverability (sharks) |
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Filaments of fish fins |
1. Ceratotrichia- Fin support filaments of elastic protein/keratin, unbranched and unsegmented (cartilaginous fish) 2. Lepidotrichia- Bony structural support elements for fins, branched and segmented (osteichthyes). Start as actinotrichia that become true spines if not covered and replaced as finrays. |
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Placement of pelvic fins |
1. Abdominal- sturgeon 2. Subabdominal- 3. Thoracic- bluegill 4. Jugular- toadfish |
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Skull types |
1. Chondrocranium- cartilaginous, jaw separates from skull during bite for forward thrust (sharks) 2. Neurocranium- bony (osteichthyes) |
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Explain how a Brett type swim tunnel works. |
Larger, fan pushes air towards working section with fish to create current that the fish must swim with. Oxygen meter allows for measurement of resp rate. |
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Explain how a Blaz'ka type swim tunnel works.
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Fan creates current directly on fish that must swim to keep up. Water circulates back towards fan. DO probe could also be inserted to measure resp. rate. |
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most ancestral fish |
hagfish Myxini Myxiniformes |
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Group of jawless fishes |
Ostracoderms- includes Petromyzontiformes |
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Jawed fish groups |
1. Placodermi 2. Chondrichthyes 3. Osteichthyes |
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Placodermi |
extinct armored fish from Silurian-Devonian period |
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Groups in Class Chondrichthyes |
Subclass Elasmobranchii- sharks skates rays Subclass Holocephali- chimaeras ratfish |
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Selachimorpha (Selachii) |
Modern sharks |
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Batoidea |
rays skates sawfish |
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Groups in Osteichthyes |
1. Dipnoi- lungfish 2. Coelacanthiformes- coelacanths 3. Actinopterygii- ray finned fish a. Chondrostei- bichirs sturgeon paddlefish b. Neopterygii- all other modern bony fish |
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% of fw, marine fish |
58% marine, 41% fw, 1% move between |
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What properties of water can cause constraints on fish? |
1. density of water 2. low compressibility 3. properties as a solvent 4. transparency |
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Explain how high density of water affects fish |
Reduces effect of gravity, resists movement and fish become streamlined to lower resistance. Fish bodies devoted to muscles. Fish have developed sufficient means of shoving body and tail against water column to thrust forward. |
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Explain how incompressibility of water affects fish |
Water must be pushed out of the way and creates turbulence along sides of fish and a wake which increases drag. Dev. lat line system to detect small amounts of turb. and water displacement, can detect nearby stationary objects, fish, food. Quick expansion of mouth and gill chambers allow water to rush in with O2 and food. |
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Why don't fish have ears? |
It is unnecessary because the tissue is about the same density as water, so it is almost transparent to sound waves. |
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Where are most fish found? |
In the photic (lit) zone where aquatic plants grow. Fish below the light zone produce their own light. |
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Rover Predator Body |
Streamlined/fusiform shape Fins evenly dist. to provide stability and maneuverability Constantly moving and pursuing prey Ex. minnows, bass, tuna, mackerel, swordfish, trout |
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Lie in Wait Predators |
Fusiform body, elongate, torpedo Mainly piscivores Flat head, large mouth, pointy teeth Large caudal fin for thrust needed to ambush prey Narrow frontal profile and coloration make them less visible Ex. pikes- esocidae, barracuda-sphyraenidae, needlefish-belonidae, snook-centropomidae, gar-lepisosteidae |
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Surface-oriented fish |
Small upturned mouth, flat head, large eyes, fusiform to deep bodied, dorsal fin more posterior Capturing plankton and small surface fish Adv of thin O2 rich layer on surface Stocky fw/brackish form (gambusia, fundulidae, anableps) Elongate sw form (halfbeak, Exocoetidae-flyfish) |
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Bottom fish |
Swimbladder reduced or absent and dorsoventrally flattened body. 1. Bottom Rovers 2. Bottom Clingers 3.Bottom Hiders 4. Flatfish 5. Rattail |
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Bottom Rovers |
Predator like body Flat head, hump back, large pect. fins Small eyes, well dev. barbels to find prey in low visisbility Ex. N.Am catfish-Ictaluridae, small armored catfish-Loricariidae, strugeon-Acipenseridae, sharks |
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Bottom Clingers |
Small, flat heads, large pect. fins, structures adhere to bottom in currents Sculpin-Cottidae- use small close pelvic fins as antiskid devices Gobies-Gobiidae, and clingfishes-Gobiesocidae- have suction cups |
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Bottom Hiders |
Small, flat heads, large pect. fins, elongate body. Live under rocks or in crevices. Darters-Percidae- N. Am. streams Blennies-Blennidae |
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Flatfish |
Flounders-Pleuronectiformes-deep bodied fish w/ one side on bottom and eye migrates to upward side and mouth twists. Skates/Rays- Batoidea- depressiform, move by undulating large pects. Mouth ventral, spiracles dorsal for resp |
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Rattail |
Evolved independently of Osteichthyes and Chondrichthyes. Large pointy snout, large pects, long pointed tail. benthic, scavenge and prey on ben inverts Grenadiers(Macrouridae), brotula(Ophidiidae), chimaeras(Holocephali) |
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Deep Bodied Fish |
Compressiform (lat compressed), long dorsal and anals, high pects. Small protrusible mouth, large eyes, short snout. Good for maneuvering in tight quarters. Spines in dorsal for protection. Benthic or open ocean(planktivores-herring) Sharp ventral keep that camouflages silvery fish by eliminating shadows. |
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Eel-like fish |
Elongate body, blunt/wedge shaped head, tapering/rounded tail. Small nonpaired fins, long dorsal and anal, small or no scales, round body. In small holes, aquatic plants, and burrowing into soft bottoms. Eels(Anguilliformes), loaches(Cobitidae), gunnels(Pholididae) |
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Types of drag and flow |
Drag: 1. Frictional 2. Form Flow: 1. turbulent 2. laminar 3. transitional |
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Frictional Drag |
Loss of momentum due to interaction of water particles with surface of fish. |
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Form Drag |
Non-streamlined shaped causes adverse pressure gradients which create turbulence. Faster speeds increase form drag. Bigger problem than frictional drag. |
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Turbulent flow |
Chaotic; increases frictional drag |
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Laminar flow |
Unidirectional, same plane; reduces friction drag. Easily separates and produces form drag (bad). |
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Transitional flow |
Between turbulent and laminar. |
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Streamline Separation |
Water moves away from the body; form drag |
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How do fast fish reduce form drag? |
Have rough surfaces, such as ctenoid or placoid scales, that create turbulent flow. The turbulent flow increases friction drag but decreases form drag. |
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Describe Reynold's #. |
Re=UL/V U=speed, L=length, V=kinematic viscosity of fluid (1x10^-6) Re<10^5 : laminar Re>10^6 : turbulent 10^5 |
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Ways to reduce drag |
1. have a fusiform body shape 2. cover body in mucus to red friction drag 3. Rough scales decrease streamline sep, encourage turb flow, and red form drag 4. Proper fin placement can capture momentum by vortices behind them 5. Scale bristling can give control over flow in boundary layer 6. Schooling or burst and coast behavior |
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Types of Swimming speeds |
1. critical 2. burst 3. prolonged 4. sustained |
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Critical swimming speed |
Max speed fish can swim in a time period. |
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Burst swimming speed |
Fastest speed, max for a short time (<20 seconds). |
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Prolonged swimming speed |
Speed can maintain between 20 seconds and 200 minutes. |
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Sustained swimming speed |
Speed can maintain for over 200 minutes. |
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Anguilliform swimming |
S shaped movement of whole body Eels |
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Carangiform swimming |
Swimming occurs in posterior portion, make 1/2 of a body wave Jacks |
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Ostraciform swimming |
Only move the tail boxfish |
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Amiiform swimming |
Swim by undulation of the dorsal fin Bowfin |
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Gymnotiform swimming |
Only the anal fin moves |
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Balistiform swimming |
Anal and dorsal fin undulate |
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Rajiform swimming |
Up and down movement of the large pectoral fins. Skates and rays |
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Subcarangiform swimming |
Produces between .5 and 1 body wave |
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Thunniform swimming |
Undulation of the caudal fin Tuna |
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Labriform swimming |
Rowing of the pectoral fins Parrotfish |
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Muscle Types |
Red- slow twitch White- fast twitch Pink- intermediate |
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Red muscle |
Lots of capillaries, myoglobin, and mitochondria High oxidative enzymes Sustained swimming High aerobic potential Tastes bad |
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White muscle |
Thick, poor blood supply No myoglobin High glycolytic potential Fewer mitochondria Burst swimming Anaerobic (glycogen converted to lactate) Builds up O2 debt by lactic acid build-up |
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Explain the difference in the two graphs. |
Absolute speed-how fast going, bigger fish faster, cm/s, used to calculate efficiency
Relative speed-how many body lengths covered in a time, relative to size of fish, smaller fish faster, bl/s |
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General cost of transport equation |
CoT= metabolic rate / speed CoT= calories expended / g fish * km traveled |
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Fill in the two ?s, left to right. |
1. aerobic 2. anaerobic Between is the max aerobic speed or active met. rate. |
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Explain organization of fish muscle. |
Fish muscles are layered instead of bundled. A sheet of musc called myomere/myotome and separated from other by sheet of conn tiss Upper musc are epaxial, lower half are hypaxial |
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Describe the structure of hemoglobin |
Hemoglobin has four subunits, each with an iron molecule in the middle that allows for the binding of oxygen. Found in red blood cells. |
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Active metabolic rate |
Max speed at aerobic respiration. |
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Standard metabolic rate |
Speed of minimum respiration, respiration rate at 0 speed; minimum rate for keeping the body alive. |
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Scope for activity |
Difference between active and standard metabolic rates Estimate of your ability to engage in activity Examine fish condition |
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Myoglobin |
Molecule that binds oxygen; essentially a single subunit of hemoglobin Iron molecule in center makes it taste bad and causes red coloration |
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Circulation and heat retention of normal fish |
Warm blood from heart goes to the gills (what artery???), heat lost at gills into water, cold blood goes thru dorsal aorta into body to deliver O2 to body and back to heart via dorsal vein |
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Whole body endothermy with examples |
Blood from heart goes to gills where heat lost, then cutaneous artery where delivered thru body, cold blood going into musc passes over warm venous blood from musc and warms it via cc exchanger. Cutaneous vein brings warm blood back to heart. Can maintain temp 14-16 C warmer than env Can shunt blood from cutaneous art to dorsal aorta if env is warm and no need for heat retention. |
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Counter Current Exchanger |
Capillary network that allows warm blood to flow next to but in opposite direction of cold blood, so heat diffuses into the cold blood, warming it. Can multiply heat that is produced by chemical reactions in the body. |
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Billfish brain heater organ |
Layer of tissue by the brain that generates heat via Ca2+ cycling (futile cycle of the sarcoplasmic reticulum) and ATP turnover in the oculomotor nerve. Have rete mirable system to conserve the heat produced. |
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Futile Cycle |
When two metabolic pathways run simultaneously and in opposite directions resulting in no overall net effect except the dissipation of energy as heat. |
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Fish Gill Structure (be able to draw it) |
Gill arches (under operculum in teleosts) with gill filaments coming off in multiple V shapes. Gill filaments are covered with lamellae sticking up and water flows over and between them. |
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Describe respiration with fish gills |
Lamellae have capillaries and the blood flow is opposite that of water. Therefore, deO2 blood has O2 water flowing over and the O2 diffuses into the blood through counter current exchange. |
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How is fish respiration regulated? |
1. Increase perfusion of blood through gill 2. Increase ventilation rate |
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How can gill blood perfusion be increased? |
By lamellar recruitment. Increasing the number of lamellae that are perfused. Hypoxic water increases perfusion. Epinephrine increases perfusion. Acetylcholine decreases perfusion via vasoconstriction at the lamellae or efferent artery of the gill. |
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Describe O2 diffusion at gill without counter current flow. |
Without cc flow, water and blood move in the same direction. H2O coming in would be sat with O2, and blood would have no O2. As they move in the same direction, O2 would slowly diffuse into the blood, but because they are moving together, they will both stabilize at 50% sat. |
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Describe O2 diffusion at the gill with counter current flow. |
They flow in opposite directions so fully sat H2O first hits blood and much O2 is diffused. Because they are constantly moving in opposite directions, no eq is reached and diffusion continues to occur until the water is no longer sat with O2 |
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Pillar cell |
Cells in the lamellae that can contract and relax to adjust perfusion via autoregulation. |
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What are some characteristics of the fish gill system that allow for 80% extraction efficiency? |
The pillar cells can contract to alter flow. Thin outer membrane of lamellae for diffusion. Blood cells can deform so they can squeeze through. |
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What is O2 uptake dependent upon? |
1. Surface area of lamellae and recruitment 2. Thickness of gill epithelia 3. O2 gradient across gill |
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What characteristics do highly active fish have to allow them to uptake more O2? |
They have more lamellae to increase the surface area and thinner gill epithelia |
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Endothelin |
Potent vasoconstrictor; causes pillar cells in fish gill lamellae to contract. |
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Active gill ventilation |
Contraction and expansion of the buccal and opercular cavities. The mouth opens, the buccal floor drops to create a negative pressure that causes water to rush in, the mouth is closed and the floor pushed back up so the water is forced out of the gills. |
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Obligate ram ventilation |
Swim with mouth open so water is forced into the mouth and over the gills; get 8-10% energy savings. Rely on the forward motion to get water into mouth, must keep swimming. Ex. some sharks and tuna |
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Passive ram ventilation |
Can switch between active and ram ventilation. Most will open mouth and ram ventilate if swimming faster, but have the option to use buccal pump if they are being still. |
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Critical Oxygen Concentration |
O2 concentration below which the respiratory system is unable to extract sufficient O2 to maintain respiratory homeostasis. MAKE SENSE OF GRAPH |
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Absolute respiration rate |
O2 consumed per hour (mgO2/hr) Blue line |
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Relative respiration rate |
Compares the weight and respiration rate of the fish (mgO2/g/hr) Red line |
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Alternative Respiration Methods |
1. Cutaneous, ex. larval block bullhead catfish 2. Air breathing, 400 sp 3. Modified gills, walking cat has stiff gills so don't collapse out of H2O and breathe air 4.Mouth, vasc buccal cav, ex. electric eel 5. Gut, swallow air into gut and absorb O2 there, ex. armored catfish 6. Lungs, ex. lungfish 7. Swimbladder with cap to get O2, ex. gar, bowfin, bichir |
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Aestivation |
"Hibernation", period of suspended animation. |
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Anaerobic metabolism |
Build O2 debt, lactic acid accumulation |
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Power Performance curve |
Speed vs metabolic rate graph; shows active metabolic rate, standard metabolic rate, and scope for activity. |
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Routine Metabolic Rate |
Measure resp rate as fish does whatever it wants; volitional activity |
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Specific Dynamic Action |
The metabolism of feeding; typically exhibit elevated metabolic rate after eating a meal to help break down/digest the food. |
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Hemopoietic tissue |
Where blood is formed. Elasmo- Leydig(esophagus), epigonal(gonads), spleen Fish- kidney and spleen |
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What adaptations allow antarctic icefish to survive with little to no hemoglobin? |
Low metabolism High environmental oxygen Sluggish, not active Large heart High blood volume |
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Structure of Hb |
Four subunits, each with a heme and iron molecules. Two alpha chains and two beta chains |
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P50 |
Oxygen concentration required to halfway saturate Hb. Low P50 means that the Hb has a high O2 binding ability. |
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Blood oxygen equilibrium curve |
PO2 vs % Hb saturation. |
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Factors affecting Hb function |
pH, CO2, temperature, organophosphates (ADP and ATP) |
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pO2 |
Amount of oxygen gas dissolved in the blood; partial pressure of oxygen in blood |
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pCO2 |
Amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood; partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood |
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Effect of pCO2 on Hb O2 binding |
High pCO2 increases the p50 of Hb. Decreases the capability of Hb to bind O2. Haldane effect? Increasing CO2 decreases pH because it is a volatile acid, therefore a Bohr shift also happens. |
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How does pH affect Hb binding to oxygen? |
Low pH (acidic conditions) lowers the affinity of Hb for oxygen. This causes Hb to unload O2 into those acidic tissues where it is needed. |
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Bohr Shift |
Shift in Hb-O2 dissociation curve because affinity of Hb for O2 shifts from high to low as the pH becomes more acidic. This is more important in active fish. |
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Anodal Hb |
Hemoglobin that are pH sensitive and can experience a Bohr shift in Hb affinity for O2. Typically present in less active fish. |
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Cathodal Hb |
Hemoglobin that are insensitive to pH and cannot experience a Bohr shift. These are present in more active and faster fish. |
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What is the benefit of pH insensitive hemoglobins? |
Cathodal Hb are present in fast/active fish, whom constantly create lactate all over the body due to high activity and more white muscle (anaerobic). If low pH is everywhere, there is no need to discriminate. It can also be used as a backup during high activity. Prevents a Bohr shift too far to the right that Hb can't load or unload O2 |
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Root effect |
Decrease in O2 capacity due to low pH or high CO2. It is a vertical downward shift of the Hb-O2 dissociation curve. |
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Oxygen capacity of Hb |
The number of O2 molecules necessary for 100% saturation of hemoglobin |
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What is the function of the root effect? |
It can help with the inflation of the swim bladder. O2 that is driven off of Hb due to Bohr and root effects increases the pO2 and makes a gas gradient and builds up gas in capillaries and allows for high gas pressures to be generated in the swimbladder |
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Haldane effect |
Hb with little O2 will bind more CO2 than Hb that is bound with a lot of O2 |
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How does temperature affect the affinity of Hb for O2? |
As temperature increases, the affinity of Hb for O2 decreases |
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How do organic phosphates affect Hb affinity for O2? |
As organic phosphates (ATP and ADP) increase, the affinity of Hb for O2 decreases. This is because the main purpose of O2 is for the process of aerobic cellular respiration which uses O2 (and other molecules) for ATP production. |
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What is the basic circulation path in a fish? |
Closed circuit. Heart brings deox blood to gills where it is ox then to tissues to deliver the ox, and the now deox blood goes back to heart |
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Conus arteriosus |
Structure in elasmos after ventricle that allow for the dampening of the pulsatile flow produced by the ventricle. Has valves that prevent backflow. More rigid than bulbous. Swell and contract to remove pulsatile pressure |
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Bulbous arteriosus |
Structure in other fish after ventricle that allows for the dampening of the pulsatile flow produced by the ventricle. Swell and contract to remove pulsatile pressure |
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Sinus Venosus |
Thin walled, collects blood |
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Sinoatrial valve |
Between the sinus venosus and the atrium |
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Atrium |
Provides the first acceleration to the blood. Contracts to send blood into AV valve then ventricle. Primes the ventricles by pumping some blood into it |
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Atrioventricular valve |
Between the atrium and ventricle |
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Ventricle |
Large, heavy walled, and muscular that contracts to force blood into arteriosus then to body. This is the propulsive force of the blood |
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Myogenic |
Self-stimulating ; self-initiating system. Ex. heart |
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Pacemaker |
Nodes in the SA valve and atrium that spontaneously depolarize and tell the heart to contract |
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Electrocardiogram |
Electrical activity of a heart |
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Starling's law of the heart |
Venous return increases cardiac output Cardiac output=stroke vol*heart rate |
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Angiotensin II |
Produced by the kidneys and is a potent vasoconstrictor that can change circulation |
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Atrial natriuretic peptide |
ANP; Originates in the atrium and is a potent vasodilator |
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Vagus nerve stimulation effect on heart |
Slows the heart rate in most fish (cholinergic fiber) |
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Cholinergic fiber |
Nerve fiber that transmit impulses to others by acetylcholine |
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Epinephrine effect on heart |
Increases the heart rate |
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Label the letters: |
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Behavioral Thermoregulation |
Movement from one area to another for regulation of temperature |
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McLaren energy bonus hypothesis |
Possible explanation for vertical movement of midwater organisms. Fish feed in warm waters at the surface because the prey are there then go to deep cold waters to digest the prey. Larger scope for activity in cold waters so might get an energy bonus. |
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Problems with energy bonus hyp |
Have to know the cost of the vertical migration to know if it is less than that gained by the bonus. Predator avoidance could also be a likely explanation. More parsimonious. |
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Four Buoyancy Strategies |
1. Incorporate large quantities of low density compounds, shark liver w/oil 2. Lift by fins and body surfaces, dynamic lift (cephalofoil/cambered wing) and static lift 3. Reduced skeletal/musc tissue, deep water fish and cartilage sharks 4. Swimbladders, precise buoyancy control |
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Types of swimbladders |
Physostomous- ancestral, shallow fish, connection btwn gut and sb, pneumatic duct connects Physoclistous- No opening or connection btwn gut and sb |
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How does pressure affect a physoclistous swimbladder? |
For every 10 meter of depth, there is 1 atm pressure. At the surface, the fish experiences neutral buoyancy and the sb is large. 10m down, the fish is negatively buoyant and the sb is 1/2 the size. At 20m down, the fish is very neg buoyant and the sb is so small that gas must be put back into it. Gets larger during ascent, pos buoyant and uncontrolled ascent. Sb can push gut from mouth and kill near surface |
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Explain the circ to the swimbladder |
Deox blood goes from heart to gills where it is ox, then to the body. Some ox blood is shunted to gas gland of sb, where ox is released and fills sb then deox blood leaves and goes towards liver |
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How is oxygen released from blood in gas gland of swimbladder? |
Root effect. Gas gland produces lactic acid and lowers pH, so the Hb release O2 due to root. The O2 can then fill the sb. There is also a counter current multiplier in the blood by the sb, which increases the O2 conc outside the sb and stimulates diffusion into sb bc of conc gradient |
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Salting out |
Addition of solute and changing solubility of water, then the gas is driven out of the solution |
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How does the physoclistous swimbladder fill? |
In the afferent capillaries, salting out (via lactate and bicarb) reduces gas solubility so N2 diffuses. Bicarb and H+ (from glycolysis in gas gland)make CO2 and H2O. Acids cause root effect so Hb drops O2 and it diffuses into sb. Glycolysis in gas gland produces CO2 (via TCA), lactate, and H+. H+ bind with HCO3 to make more CO2 and H2O. CO2 also diffuses into sb. CO2, O2, and N2 in sb for filling |
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How does the physostomous swimbladder fill? |
It has a pneumatic duct that connects it to the gut. Fish gulp air at the water's surface and force it through the pneumatic duct and into the swimbladder via buccal force mechanism. |
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How is the physostomous swimbladder deflated? |
Through a gass-puckreflex. Relaxation of the sphincter muscles guarding the entrance to the pneumatic duct and contractions of body wall muscles allow gas to exit through the duct and into the esophagus. |
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How is the physoclistous swimbladder deflated? |
First, nervous signals must stop the gas gland from metabolizing glucose and producing lactate and CO2. Existing gas is them removed by diffusion back into the blood across a smooth muscle sphincter into a capillary bed and is carried away. |
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Catadromous |
Live in freshwater, migrate to saltwater to spawn Ex. American and European eels spawn in Sargasso sea |
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Anadromous |
Live in saltwater, migrate to freshwater to spawn Ex. Salmon live in oceans and migrate uprivers to spawn |
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Osmoregulatory Strategies |
1. Osmoconformers- No reg., salt conc sim to that in ocean, internal conc changes with env, live in deep ocean where salinity constant (stenohaline), hagfish 2. Osmoregulators- Reg their internal conc against changes in env, all other fish |
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Explain this graph |
As the env conc increases, the internal conc of an osmoconformer also increases. The internal conc of an osmoreg stays the same despite changes in env conc (within a range). If get too far up or down in env conc, won't be able to osmoreg enough to offset. |
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Osmoreg problems of marine teleosts |
Teleosts are hypo-osmotic (lower solute conc) to ocean. Deal with water loss and salt gain Must ingest seawater and produce concentrated urine |
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Osmoreg of marine elasmobranch |
Sharks are close to iso-osmotic (slightly hyperosmotic) to env bc of urea and TMAO retention Balanced, but may deal with a little water gain and salt loss Would want to get rid of water and conserve salt |
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Osmoreg of freshwater teleost |
These are hyperosmotic (higher solute conc) to the env Deal with water gain and salt loss at gills Produce lots of dilute urine, drink little water, conserve salts from food or from water |
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Shoal |
Any group of fishes that remains together for social reasons |
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School |
A Polarized, synchronized shoal |
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How do fish school? |
Vision important (blind fish stop schooling) Lat line senses turb of other fish Possibly pheromones or sounds (no direct evidence) |
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Why do fish shoal? |
1. Increased hydrodynamic efficiency 2. increased efficiency of finding food 3. increased reproductive success 4. reduced predation risk |
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Tonicity |
The ability of an extracellular solvent to make water move into or out of a cell by osmosis |
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Tesserae |
Tiny hexagonal crystals of calcium salts, give cartilage the strength of bone w/o the weitght. In locations where weight is important- jaws and parts of the backbone |
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Advantage of cartilaginous skeleton |
It is lightweight, so the shark spends less energy staying afloat (no swimbladder) |
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How can fin placement reduce drag? |
Proper fin placement can capture momentum. Vortices form behind dorsal fins; can place a fin behind the dorsal fin and capture the momentum from the vortices. |
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Scale Bristling |
Sharks can erect their placoid scales to allow for fine control over flow in the boundary layer. Can make their body surface more rough to possibly control their direction. Could allow for control over whether they are experiencing laminar or turbulent flow in boundary layer. Laminar would be better at lower speeds, but turbulent would be better at high speeds. More form drag at high speeds. |
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How could finlets reduce drag? |
The small finlets are behind the dorsal fin, so they could assist in capturing momentum produced by the dorsal fin and reduce drag. |
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List the main differences between red and white muscle |
Red/White 1. Many capillaries/ poor blood supply 2. Lots of myoglobin/ no myoglobin 3. Lots of mitochondria/ fewer mitochondria 4. High oxidative enz/ fewer-no ox. enz 5. Aerobic/ anaerobic 6. Low glycolytic potential/ high glycolytic pot. 7. Sustained swimming/ burst swimming 8. Slow twitch/ fast twitch |
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Describe molecular movements and the main function of the alpha type chloride cell |
Marine- actively transport ions out |
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Describe molecular movements and the main function of the beta type chloride cell |
Freswater- bring ions into cell then blood |
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Describe molecular movements and the main function of the rectal gland. |
Excrete concentrated NaCl solution |
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What adjustments must bull sharks make when moving from SW to FW? |
They would deal with a huge influx of water. Must reduce retention of urea and prod of TMAO Must urinate more Increase activity of the rectal gland to remove NaCl Trying to reduce internal solute concentration to get closer to that of FW, so not as much ion/water flux Their kidneys can also handle a lot more |
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Euryphagous |
Consume a mixed diet Most fish euryphagous carnivores |
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Stenophagous |
Consume limited food types |
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Monophagous |
Consume only one food type (few if any fish) |
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Weird feeders |
- candiru- parasitic- hematophagous - cookie cutter- teeth for cutting holes out of flesh- hockey pucks- parasite - Cichlids- scale eaters, fin nippers, eye biters |
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Spiral valve intestine |
Present in Chondrichthyes, sturgeons, and lungfishes Increases surface area of intestine, so increases absorption of nutrients |
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Gastric evacuation rate |
How long it takes to move through the gut |
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Friability |
How easily digested the item is |
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Pharyngeal teeth |
Used for macerating prey |
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Gizzard |
Contains sand and is used for grinding algae Present in mullet |
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Methods of prey capture |
- Ram feeding- overtakes prey by rapid swimming - suction feeding- expansion of buccal cavity while still so sucks food in (Most fish use a mix of those two) - Manipulation- use teeth to bite, scrape, clip, grip, and grasp - suspension/filter- eat small prey suspended - filter- fine gill rakers for filtering plankton - piscivorous- eat fish |
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Energy budget equation |
I = R + G + M + E I= ingested food R= reproduction G= growth M= metabolism E= excreted waste - heat energy lost at skin and gills - SDA is metabolic energy |
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Proteins as food |
Important for growth |
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Essential amino acids in diet |
Arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine |
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Specific dynamic action (SDA) |
Energy cost associated with breaking down complex proteins and synthesizing new ones - Increases with amount of protein in diet |
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Adaptations for herbivorous fish |
- some have gut microbes to break down cellulose- anchovies, channel catfish, carp, gizzard shad - some with endogenous chitinase to breakdown chitin - some w symbiotic bacteria that have cellulase enzyme for breaking down cellulose (beta glycosidic bond) - sea chubs with caecal pouches for microbial fermentation of plant material |
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Lipids in the diet |
Rich source of energy completely digestible provide essential fatty acids for making fats and oils to store for later use Sharks reserve lipids in liver for later use and buoyancy |
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Fish stomach |
Not well differentiated Three smooth musc layers- inner middle and outer HCl released when stomach stretched Gastric mucosa of stomach produces pepsin (protease) and HCl |
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Fish pancreas |
Produces trypsin for digestion of ptns Lipases and carbohydrases for b-down of lipids and carbs |
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How are nutrients from food absorbed in fish? |
Digested materials absorbed across intestinal wall by diffusion and active transport with Na/K ATPase system |
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Pyloric caeca |
Pouches near pyloric valve that secrete pepsin and neutralize acidity of chyme |
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Ammoniotelic |
Produce ammonia as nitrogenous waste from breakdown of proteins Teleosts produce ammonia |
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Pros of being ammoniotelic |
-Easy diffusion at gills bc small size and lipid solubility -Exchanged for Na at gills -Cheap to use, less energy expended -Water soluble |
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Cons of being ammoniotelic |
Very toxic |
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Ureotelic |
Produce urea as nitrogenous waste from breakdown of proteins Elasmobranchs and coelacanths Kidney filters urea from blood but reabsorbed and retained rather than excreted |
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Pros of being ureotelic |
-Less toxic - Good waste prod if water limiting Lungfish switch to urea when estivating |
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Cons of being ureotelic |
-Takes more energy to produce it as waste product |
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Ureotelic teleosts |
Possibly toadfish Lake Magadi tilapia -Lake is so alkaline that little H+ available to convert NH3 to NH4 -They wouldn't be able to exchange Na for NH4, because it would all be in the NH3 form |
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Anabolism |
Building up of larger molecules out of smaller ones Controlled by growth hormone from the pituitary and steroid hormones from the gonads |
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Catabolism |
Breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones |
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Factors affecting growth rate |
1. Temperature 2. Dissolved oxygen 3. ammonia 4. salinity 5. photoperiod 6. competition 7. seasonal food availability 8. age and maturity 9. training |
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Temperature effects on growth |
Affects rate and efficiency of growth Affects consumption rate All increase at higher temperatures |
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Dissolved oxygen effects on growth |
When DO drops too low, extra activities like growth and reproduction are reduced Seen in largemouth bass when DO is 5mg/l or below |
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Ammonia effects on growth |
Decreases food consumption and growth |
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Salinity effects on growth |
Some fish have highest growth at certain salinities. Desert pupfish are euryhaline and highest growth at 35 ppt |
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pH effects on growth |
pH values out of range adapted to can disturb water and salt balance, so more energy would need to be put towards restoring balance Less energy available for growth |
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Competition effects on growth |
If there are too many fish in an area, there will be competition for food. Results in each fish getting less food which decreases growth -If overcrowded, can also have increased stress hormones which decrease feeding and growth |
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How does seasonal food availability affect growth? |
Fish are able to eat more when more food is available Most food available during summer, so highest growth during summer - Couldn't that also be due to temperature? |
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Photoperiod effects on growth |
Day length can affect growth -How? -Maybe if have fish feed during day then longer days allow more time for finding food- yea |
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Age and maturity effects on growth |
Young fish grow faster than old fish At maturation growth is directed towards gonadal growth, less body growth |
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Training effects on growth |
Exercise can lead to increased growth -better food conversion efficiency -increased GH levels -increased ptn syn rates -decreased antagonistic behavior -decreased stress Ex. rainbow trout swam at 1bl/s 42days w 118% faster growth than controls Ex. grass carp 20% larger after training |
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Methods to measure and model growth |
1. Raise in controlled env- captivity 2. Mark and recapture 3. Length frequency distribution 4. Rings |
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Problems with measuring growth in captive animals |
-depends upon how much they are fed -likely doesn't reflect growth in wild bc captive env very diff from wild -captive env can alter growth |
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Mark and recapture growth methods |
Measure fish, tag it, and release it. Recapture that fish and measure again- how much has it grown? Problems: expensive, tags fall out, low tag return |
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Length-frequency distribution method of measuring growth |
-take large sample of fish from confined area -measure length and count all fish in sample -plot frequencies of different lengths -requires an equal probability of catching all size classes |
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Measuring growth by aging with hard parts |
Remove hard part from fish and process by staining, sectioning, etc the hard part to visualize the rings Count # of rings to determine fish age Construct growth curve -requires that fish prod seasonal diff in calcification of hard parts -decreased met, appetite, fasting, spawning, egg prod can affect calcification -hard parts- otolith, scale, vertebrae |
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Von Bertalanffy equation for describing growth data |
It = Linf (1 - e ^ -K (t-t0) ) It= length at time t Linf= max theoretical length K= growth coefficient t=age t0= age at zero length Typical curves have steep slope at early ages (growing more) and level off old (max length reached) |
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Sexual dimorphism |
Differences in shape or size between sexes. Females typically have larger body size |
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Dichromatism |
Differences in coloration between sexes Males almost always brightly colored |
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Intromittent organ |
Male copulatory organ of an animal Claspers, modified anal fin |
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Testes |
Smooth, white, smaller 12% body weight at most |
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Ovary |
Yellow, larger 30-70% body weight |
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Shark sexual anatomy |
Males- two strap-like testes, seminal vesicle, and siphon sacs Females- Single ovary with shell gland and uteri |
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Reproductive strategies |
1. Oviparity- egg laying- most fish and some small sharks 2. Viviparity- live birth- large sharks 3. Ovoviviparity- live birth w no placental attachment- some bony fish, some sharks |
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Hermaphroditism |
Both sex organs in same ind.- Labridae, Serranidae, Scaridae, deep sea fish -Sequential- change from one sex to another- gonad switches from one sex to another ---protogynous- female 1st- flame angelfish ---protoandrous- male 1st- maroon clownfish -Synchronous- both at same time- belted sandbass |
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Breeding behaviors |
1. Non-guarders- do not protect young after spawning 2. Guarders- guard embryos until hatch and tend to larval stages 3. Bearers- carry embryos and sometimes young around internally or externally |
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Non-Guarders |
-Pelagic spawners- broadcast eggs widely dispersed with oil for buoyancy, high pred but large numbers- tuna and sardines -Benthic spawners- spawn on bottom, eggs may adhere/stick to substrate -Brood hiders- hide eggs but no parental care -Redds- nests excavated by salmon and trout, defended until spawn, then abandoned |
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Guarders |
Typically nest spawners Territoriality results since tied to a location- damselfish Sunfish, tilapia, and bass nest in colonies Sticklebacks make nests out of plants |
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Bearers |
Pipefish and seahorses- brood pouch in males Mouth brooders- sea catfish and cichlids Viviparity- female provides nutrients Ovoviviparity- eggs held by female until hatch |
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Describe this graph |
Family on x axis, size on y axis, sexes diff colored bars Shows that larger sharks tend to have more sexual dimorphism in body size |
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Physiology of reproductive timing |
Tied to env and seasonal changes -light and temp are most important -act thru sensory sys to affect hormone levels -courtship beh can stim ovulation and spermatogenesis - some males prod pheremones that stim ovulation in females |
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Spermatogenesis |
Production of spermatocytes |
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Oogenesis |
Production of oocytes |
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Explain the graph |
The graph depicts how ovary development (weight) changes throughout the seasons. Highest weight/dev during summer- spawning times, regresses between Tropical species don't show seasonal effect b/c always same temp -can spawn year-round so maintain a moderate ovary weight at all times |
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Pathways for reproductive stimulation and inhibition |
Figure out this graph!!! |
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Reproductive effort |
Energy or time invested into producing offspring |
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Age at rep |
Early rep when low growth and survivorship of population/group |
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Fecundity |
Number of eggs in a female -increases with size of female |
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Fertility |
actual number of young produced |
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Frequency of rep |
How often an org will rep Reflects predictability of env |
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Semelparity |
Big bang rep- reproduce and then die Do this when in predictably good env bc know that most will survive Salmon |
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Iteroparity |
Repeated reproductive events Most fish When env conditions not predictable btwn one year and the next- no guarantee that fish spawned in any certain year will survive |
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What is the diff btwn FL and New Brunswick pops of American shad? |
Semelparity and high fecundity in FL Mostly iteroparity and low fecundity in New Brunswick Why? FL must have better and more predictable conditions than NB |
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Mating Systems |
1. Monogamy- one male and one female- uncommon in fish- cichlids 2. Polygyny- one male with many females- leks- cichlids 3. Polyandry- one female with many males- uncommon- pipefishes 4. Promiscuity- many males and many females- herrings |
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Alternative reproductive strategies |
-Satellite males- rush in and spawn at same time, steal fertilizations -sneaker males- bluegill- mimic beh and color of females so males allow onto terr and steal ferts when couple spawns |
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Unisexual species |
-all female pops- parthenogenesis with diploid eggs -Amazon molly --parasitize males for sperm of closely related species to start egg dev but they don't contribute to genome -all male pop- Squalius alburnoides males diploid mate with hybrid triploid Squalius pyrenacius females that prod haploid eggs w male chromosomes so only males are produced |
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Endocrine disruptors |
Mimic natural hormones environmental estrogens Cause beh and dev changes in males to make them feminine and inhibits spermatogenesis -PCBs, organochlorides, plasticizers, surfactants, synthetic estrogens -Lipophilic so slow breakdown |
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Chemoreception |
Smell and taste |
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Mechanoreception |
Hearing, orientation, lateral line detection of water disturbance |
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Electroreception |
Detection of electric fields |
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Gustatory |
taste |
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Olfaction |
Smell Inside nares are olfactory pits. Nares allow inflow and outflow of water through the pits. Nasal rosette- folded surface with olfactory receptors in olfactory pits- high surface area for lots of receptor binding Olfactory bulbs enlarged in species that rely heavily on smell |
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What fish has huge nasal rosettes and why? |
Male anglerfish (maybe females too) The males are morphologically simple, hardly have eyes Large potential for olfaction allows them to detect females and "parasitize" them for eggs |
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How do Atlantic salmon use olfaction? |
They are anadromous (salt to fresh to spawn) They imprint on the smell of their natal stream to determine where to migrate to for spawning |
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Klinotaxis |
Gradient searching for food detection. Move head from side to side to determine which nare is detecting the stimulus |
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Taste |
Same as olfaction, but chemorec in diff spots Receptors can be anywhere-mouth, skin, fins, barbels, lips, pelvic fins Vagal lobes of brain enlarged for fish that rely heavily on taste |
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Palatal organ |
Organ with lots of taste buds and are connected to the brain via the vagus nerve Found in buccal cavity Minnows, suckers, salmon |
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Taste in catfish |
If taste reception is blocked on one side of fish, they will continuously circle towards side that is intact Can sever optic and olfactory nerves and the fish will still be able to find food |
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What senses do sharks rely on? |
Olfaction, hearing, vision, electroreception |
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Acousticolateralis system |
Detects sounds, vibrations, and displacements in water |
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Two main components of acousticolateralis system? |
1. inner ear (0-700 Hz) 2. neuromast/lateral line (0-200 Hz) There is overlap btwn the two |
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Inner ear |
Used for sound detection and balance They can use it to detect the direction of gravity |
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How does sound travel? |
By compressing particles and then they rebound. Sound travels 4.8 times faster in water |
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Inner ear structure |
-3 semicircular canals with ampullae -Utricular otolith- detects equilibrium and gravity -Sacculus and lagena otoliths- sound detection |
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Ampullae |
Fluid inertia-sensing chambers Has 3 axes with fluid that moves and sensory hairs at the base of canal that detect movement of sensory hairs |
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Ostariophysan fishes hearing |
Have a connection between the swim bladder and the inner ear that acts as a big receiver Minnows, suckers, and catfish, etc |
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Weberian ossicles of the Weberian apparatus |
1. tripus 2. intercalarium 3. scaphium |
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Lateral line |
Line of neuromasts on head, body, and caudal fin Some fish with free neuromasts Detect at a meter distance |
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Uses of lateral line |
Mainly hydrodynamic interactions at short distances Obstacle detection in dark Feeding- surface feeding fish can detect waves of fish and get estimate of distance and direction Maintain school structure in dark |
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Lateral line anatomy |
Pore on skin, tube through scale, tube goes to lateral line canal, with neuromast organ and cupula that are connected to a nerve |
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Neuromast anatomy |
Cupula extends from lateral line canal Kinocilium and stereocilium extend into cupula and are attached to hair cells that connect to a nerve. Sense movement of hairs |
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Lateral line and schooling |
Lat line very important for schooling Blind-folded schooling fish maintained school structure with normal nearest neighbor distance Fish with lateral line severed stayed close to each other, decreased nearest neighbor distance Helps monitor speed and direction of travel of neighbors |
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bioluminescence |
Light of biological origin |
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Cornea |
No optical alterations to incoming light |
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Spherical lens |
Focusing of light |
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Retina |
Light sensitive layer in the eye Has densely packed rods and cones |
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Accommodation |
Lens is moved back and forth to focus on near or far objects |
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Nictitating membrane |
Opaque eyelid in sharks that protects eye while feeding |
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Rods |
Detect light and dark In retina |
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Cones |
Detect color
In retina Some with cones sensitive to polarized and UV light |
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Choroid coat |
Under retina and supplies nutrients and oxygen to retina Lots of capillaries- makes eyes red |
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Tapetum lucidum |
Present in choroid layer of sharks Serves to reflect light Provides a second chance for reflected light to stimulate a retinal cell but causes a loss in resolution Allows for detection of objects and movement Guanine crystals form reflective layer |
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Retractor lentis |
Muscle that moves lens back and forth to focus the image |
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Tubular eye anatomy |
Have a lens and main retina that direct and detect light going down vertically Also have secondary lens and secondary retina that direct and detect light moving at a horizontal angle |
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Anableps eye |
Four-eyed fish Has one lens, 2 retina, and 2 cornea Ventral retina for vision above water Dorsal retina for vision below water Commonly found at surface of water- allows them to see above and below at same time |
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Barreleye, Macropinna microstoma |
Large eye that looks for bioluminescent fish above and can rotate eyes forward to pinpoint a fish Green filters in eyes filter out sunlight so they focus only on biolum prey |
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How does filtering out sunlight help the barreleye detect bioluminescent prey? |
Biolum fish have photophores that help them match the downwelling sunlight. They have photophores in their eye too, to compare its light with the downwelling light. If barreleye filters out downwelling light, then only see shining photophores of biolum fish |
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External pit organs |
Used to detect weak electric fields Gymnotidae, electric catfish, and African electricfishes |
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Ampullae of Lorenzini |
Long canal with a sensory cell at the bottom Canals filled with conductive gel In lampreys, elasmo, lungfish, bichirs, coelacanths, sturgeon, paddlefish, catfish, knifefishes, and elephantfishes |
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Categories of electric fish |
1. Strongly electric fish- produce own electric current for prey capture- electric eel, electric catfish, electric rays 2. Weakly electric fish- generate small current to detect info about environment- knifefish and elephantnose 3. Electric sensing- don't prod electricicty but can sense prey- elasmos, catfish, paddlefish |
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Uses of electric sense |
Can detect weak electric fields Communication Object detection Prey detection Geomagnetic orientation/navigation- use of Earth's magnetic field |
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Electrolocation |
Use of electric sense to detect objects |
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Prey detection with electric sense |
Muscle contractions and heartbeat emit weak electric currents that can be detected by sharks |
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Electric organ discharge |
1. Pulse type- strongly electric fish and weak 2. Wave type- weakly electric fish- discharge short electrical pulses intermittently |
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Object detection with electric sense |
These fish detect electric fields Objects within the electric field distorts them Fish detect the distortion and move towards it |
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Ampullae anatomy |
Pore on outside that connects to a canal, ending in sensory cells with excitatory hair cells that send signals to afferent nerve |
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Geomagnetic navigation by sharks |
Shark in Earth's magnetic field induces an electric field that provides animal with basis of an electromagnetic compass sense |
