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158 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Central Nervous System
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Brain & Spinal Cord
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Peripheral Nervous System
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12 pairs of cranial nerves
31 pairs of spinal nerves |
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Ganglia
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collection of nerve cell bodies; contains nucleus outside of CNS
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Neural tube
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gives rise to CNS
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Neural Crest
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-forms PNS
-spinal ganglia, ANS ganglia, some cranial nerve ganglia, meninges of brain & spinal cord |
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Glial Cells
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-support cells; "glue"
-outnumber neurons from between 500-50:1 |
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Monosynaptic Reflex Arc
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-Simplest reflex arc
-one sensory & one motor neuron |
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Visceral = autonomic (same thing)
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cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, & glands
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Afferent Division
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brings sensory info to CNS from receptors in peripheral tissue/organs
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Efferent Division
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carries motor commands from CNS to muscles, glands, and adipose tissue
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Somatic Nervous System
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Movement of skeletal muscle both voluntary & involuntary
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Autonomic Nervous System
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Automatic regulation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, & glands. Includes Sympathetic and Parasympathetic divisions.
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Sympathetic
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Fight or Flight
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Parasympathetic
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Rest & Digest
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Dendrites
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collect signal and carry it to cell body
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Axon
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conducts signal away from cell body
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uni-polar neuron
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-neuron that only has one process that acts as both axon & dendrite
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Pseudounipolar neuron
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-has separate axon and dendrite
-Somatic Senses |
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Bipolar Neurons
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special senses (smell, sight, hearing)
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Multipolar Neurons
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-All motor neurons that control skeletal muscle
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reflex arc
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stimulus --> receptor --> afferent pathway --> integration center --> efferent pathway --> effector
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Nissl Bodies
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represent large agregates of ribosomes in cell body
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Lipofuscin granules
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lysosomes that are used up & collect in the cytoplasm
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Golgi Stain
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Uses gold or other heavy metal to show processes of neuron
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Schwann Cells
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Internodes in PNS
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Nodes of Ranvier
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Space between myelin on axons
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Myelinated
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has multiple wrappings of Schwann Cells
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Unmeylinated
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No Schwann Cell of lies in indentation of a Schwann Cell
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Hierarchy of Neural Tissue
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Epineurium (Surrounds entire Nerve) --> Perineurium (Surrounds one fascicle) --> Endoneurium (Surrounds individual Axons)
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Satellite Cells
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-Part of PNS
-Surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia |
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Schwann Cells
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-Part of PNS
-Surround all axons in PNS -Responsible for myelination of Peripheral cells -Help repair process after injury |
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Oligiodendrocytes
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-Part of CNS
-Myelinate CNS axons |
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Astrocytes
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-CNS
-Maintain blood-brain barrier -provide structural support -connected by gap junctions (functional syncichium) |
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Microglia
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-CNS
-immune defense in CNS -Remove cell debris, wastes, and pathogens by phagocytosis |
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Ependymal Cells
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-CNS
-Lines ventricles of brain & central canal of spinal cord -Assist in producing, circulating, and monitoring cerebrospinal fluid |
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White Matter
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-part of brain with myelin
-on inside of brain, but outside of spinal cord |
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Gray Matter
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-unmyelinated
-on outside of brain, but inside of spinal cord |
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Cell Membrane Permeability
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-Partially due to lipid portion of lipid bilayer
-lipophillic molecules tend to get through easily -large molecules & hydrophillic molecules don't get through easily -Cell membrane allows for concentration gradient -Proteins are large & become trapped inside cell (reason for negative charge inside cell) - |
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Concentration Gradient
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-Necessary for life
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Na+
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always high outside of cell & low inside
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K+
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always high inside of cell & low outside
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leakage channels
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-always open, allowing Na/K to move down concentration gradients
-many K+ pores, but few Na+ pores -Membrane very permeable to K+ = low resistance to K+ -Membrane relatively permeable to Na+ = high resistance to Na+ |
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Na/K pump
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-moves ions against their concentration gradients using ATP
-Exactly balances leakage channels |
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Ohm's Law
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I = E/R
I--> current; E--> potential; R--> resistance -greater potential = greater current -greater resistance = smaller current |
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Membrane Potential
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-voltage difference between interior & exterior of cell
-measured inside relative to outside (-65mV = 65mV more negative inside than outside) - |
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Nernst Equation
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used to figure out transmembrane potential
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Resting Membrane Potential
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-Around -70 mV
-Na+ never realizes full potential (+65mV) -K+ never realizes full potential (-90mV) |
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Goldman Equation
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-Nernst equation with permeability factor
-Observed membrane potential |
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Exciteable Cells
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-Have channels that can open or close when appropriately stimulated
-closed = low permeability, high resistance -open = high permeability, low resistance |
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Stimulus
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-change in environment that can change permeability of cell
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Voltage Gated Channels
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Na+
1)closed but able to open (-70mV) 2)open (-50 to +35 mV) 3)closed and unable to open (+30 to -70mV) K+ 1)closed (-70 to +30mV) 2)open (+30 to -80mV) |
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Concentration/Chemical Force
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-ions move down gradient when channels are open
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Electrical Force
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-All positive ions pulled toward negative charge inside cell
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Potassium
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-large chemical gradient out
-small chemical gradient in = fairly large chemical gradient out |
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Sodium
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-chemical & electrical gradient in to cell
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Depolarization
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includes influx of positive charge & moves from a resting potential of -70mV toward 0mV
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Repolarization
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moves back toward resting potential after depolarization
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Hyperpolarization
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potential drops below (gets more negative) than resting potential of -70mV
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Depolarzaion
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Upward deflection = decrease in potential = influx of Na+
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Hyperpolarization
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Downward deflection = increase in potential = efflux of K+
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Graded Potential
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-LOCAL change in the membrane potential relative to the resting potential
-As you move away from initial site of potential change, decremental spread of graded potential -Stronger stimulus creates a greater change in the transmembrane potential & effects a larger area -SUMMATE -In general, all postsynaptic membrane events are graded potentials & may or may not elicit an action potential |
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Neuromuscular Junction
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only place that skips a graded potential and goes straight to action potential
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Subthreshold Stimuli
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results in graded potential
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Threshold Stimuli
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-results in action potential
-Thresholds vary |
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Action Potential
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-all or nothing event
-always depolarizaing -NEVER SUMMATE |
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Hodgkins cycle
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-Positive feedback loop responsible for rapid depolarization
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Absolute Refractory Period
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period when a second stimulus, no matter how strong, will not excite the neuron
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Relative Refractory Period
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a stronger than normal stimulus is needed to elicit neuronal excitation.
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Frequency Coding
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-When a stimulus is MAINTAINED that is just enough to reach threshold, subsequent action potentials occur after the relative refractory period ends
-A supra-threshold stimulus can elicit action potentials more frequently (overcome relative refractory period) |
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Recovery of excitability
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As Na+ channels begin to recover from inactivation, excitability is gradually restored.
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Intensity Coding
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How neurons communicate
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Continuous Propagation
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-Action Potential at point A depolarizes next section and triggers Action potential at Point B and so on until Action potential reaches end
-Not same exact AP throughout, but series of equal AP's |
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Saltatory Propagation
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-In myelinated axons, the action potential jumps from node to node
-faster and uses less energy |
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Excitatory postsynaptic potentia
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Decreases in potential = influx of a positive ion e.g. Na+ = EPSP
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
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Increases in potential = efflux of a positive ion e.g. K+ = IPSP
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Terminal Button
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where axon ends
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Type A Fibers
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-Largest (4 to 20 micrometer diameter)
-myelinated -Conduct action potentials at 120 meters per second |
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Type B Fibers
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-Intermediate (2 to 4 micrometer diameter)
-myelinated -conduct action potentials at 18 meter per second |
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Type C Fibers
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-Smallest (less than 2 micrometer diameter)
-unmyelinated -conduct action potentials at 1 meter per second |
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Neurotransmitters
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1)Acetylcholine
2)Biogenic Amines: Norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, seratonin, histamine 3)Amino Acids: glutamate, aspartate, GABA, glycine 4)Neuropeptides: Substance P, opiods (endorphins & enkephalins) 5)Hormones: ADH, oxytocin, insulin, glucagon 6)Gases: Carbon Monoxide, Nitric Oxide |
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Effect of Neurotransmitter
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Depends on receptor
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Synaptic Delay
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time it takes to process information and transmit potential
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Convergence
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multiple neurons lead to one neuron
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Divergence
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one neuron branches off into multiple neurons
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Spatial Summation
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addition of many potentials arriving from different sources at the same time
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Temporal Summation
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addition of stimuli occurring in rapid succession at a single synapse
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Synapses
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1)Axosomatic: an axon terminal ending on the soma of a neuron
2)Axoaxonic: an axon terminal contacting another axon terminal 3)Axodendritic: an axon ending on a dendrite |
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Presynaptic Inhibition
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-ex. axoaxonic release of GABA inhibits the opening of voltage gated calcium channels in the synaptic knob
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Presynaptic Facilitation
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-ex. axoaxonic activity increases the amount of a neurotransmitter released when an action potential arrives at the synaptic knob
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Spinal Nerve Segments
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-C 1-8 (takes name from vertebrate inferior to it)
-T 1-12 (takes name from vertebrate superior to it) -L 1-5 -S 1-5 -Coccygeal |
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Conus Medullaris
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Termination of spinal cord at about L 1 or 2 (vertebrate)
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Spinal Nerves
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-Mixed Nerves
-31 Pairs |
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Cervical Enlargement
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-C4 - T1
-supplies nerves to shoulders and upper limbs |
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Lumbar Enlargement
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-T11 - L1
-innervates pelvis & lower limbs |
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Filum Terminale
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slender strand of fibrous tissue extending from the tip of the conus medullaris and provides longitudinal support as a component of the coccygeal ligament
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Dorsal Roots
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bring sensory information into the spinal cord
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Ventral Roots
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contain the axons of motor neurons that extend into the periphery to control somatic & visceral effectors
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Spinal Meninges
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1)Dura Mater
2)Arachnoid Mater 3)Pia Mater -Provide stability & protection for spinal cord |
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Cervical Plexus
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-C 1-5
-Motor to extrinsic laryngeal muscles -Motor to the diaphragm -Motor to muscles of upper chest and neck (shared with CN XI)-Sensory from upper chest, shoulder, neck and ear |
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Brachial Plexus
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-C5 - T1
-Sensory and motor from/to skin and muscles of the pectoral girdle and upper appendages -Root --> Trunk --> Division --> Cord |
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Lumbar Plexus
Sacral Plexus |
LP: T12 - L4
SP: L4 - S2 -Sensory and motor from/to pelvic girdle and lower limbs |
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Plexus
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-Interwoven Network of Nerves
-Only associated with ventral rami |
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Spinal Nerves C1 - C4
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Breathing innervation
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Spinal Nerves C4 - C6
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Heart Rate innervation
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Spinal Nerves S2 - S3
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Bladder & Bowel innervation
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Tract
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bundle of nerve cell processes in CNS
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Nerve
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bundle of nerve cell processes in PNS
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Ascending Tracts
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carry sensory information towards the brain (CNS)
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Descending Tracts
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convey motor commands to the spinal cord (CNS)
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Nucleus
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Nerve cell body in CNS
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Ganglion
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Nerve cell body in PNS
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Somatic Reflex
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-Involuntary
-ex knee-jerk relfex |
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Visceral Reflex
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autonomic reflex
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Cerebrum
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-conscious thought processes/intellectual function
-memory storage & processing -Conscious & subconscious regulation of skeletal muscle |
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Diencephalon
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1)Thalamus
2)Hypothalamus 3)Pineal gland --> endocrine function |
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Thalamus
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relay for processing centers for sensory info
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Hypothalamus
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-contains a wide variety of nuclei
-involved in homeostasis -regulate temperature, water balance, gastrointestinal function, etc. -functional & structural connection with pineal gland |
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Mesencephalon
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-Corpora Quadragemina: Superior & Inferior Colliculi
-processing visual and auditory data -reflexive somatic motor response -consciousness |
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Pons
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-Pneumotaxic & apneustic centers modify respiration
-Relays sensory info to cerebellum & thalamus -Subconscious somatic & visceral motor centers |
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Medulla Oblongata
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-contains nuclei that initiate contraction of diaphragm
-origin of phrenic nerve which innervates diaphragm -mediates cardiac activity |
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Cerebellum
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-coordinates complex somatic motor patterns
-adjusts output of other somatic motor centers in brain and spinal cord |
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Hierarchy of Brain
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Periosteum --> bone --> dura mater (endosteal & meningeal) --> arachnoid mater --> subarachnoid space --> pia mater --> brain
-blood vessels in arachnoid mater |
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Cerebrospinal Fluid
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1)Cushions Neural Structures
2)Supports Brain 3)Transports nutrients, chemical messengers, and waste products -Created from blood & returned to blood at same rate -formed in choroid plexus |
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Falx Cerebri
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-projects between cerebral hemispheres
-contains superior sagittal and inferior sagittal sinuses |
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Falx Cerebelli
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divides the two hemispheres of the cerebellum
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Tentorium Cerebelli
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-projects between the cerebrum and cerebellum
-contains the transverse sinus |
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Longitudinal Fissure
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between right & left cerebral hemispheres
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Transverse Fissure
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between cerebrum & cerebellum
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Sinus Drainage
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most drain into internal jugular vein
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Ventricles
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2 Lateral Ventricles --> interventricular foramina --> 3rd ventricle --> mesencephalic aquaduct --> fourth ventricle --> central canal of spinal cord
(also 2 lateral & 1 median aperatures in the 4th ventricle to get CSF to subarachnoid space) |
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Gyrus
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Peaks on surface of brain
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Sulcus
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Valleys on surface of brain
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Central Sulcus
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Separates anterior & posterior portions of brain
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Lateral Sulcus
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Between frontal & temporal lobes
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5 lobes of brain
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frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital, & INSULA
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Basal Ganglia
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-masses of gray matter in center of brain
-relax muscle tone -monitor motor commands over long periods of time (posture) -Parkinson's Disease effects Basal Ganglia |
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Commisural Tracts
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-Allow for communication between cerebral hemispheres
-Corpus Callosum, Anterior Commisure, & Posterior Commisure |
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Cranial Nerves
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-12 Pairs
-All Parasympathetic |
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CN I
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-Olfactory
-Sensory -Relays Smell -Enters through Olfactory Foramina in Cribiform Plate -Odor dissolves in mucus -->interact with dendrites --> create action potential -Olfactory Bulb: beginning of tact that leads to brain (where nerves collect) |
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CN II
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-Optic
-Sensory -Vision -Enters through optic canal -Retina --> optic ganglia --> optic nerve --> optic chiasma --> thalamus --> optic radiations --> primary visual cortex of occipital lobe |
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CN III
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-Oculomotor
-Mixed -Sensory & motor to 4 of the 6 extrinsic eye muscles -Superior Orbital Fissure -Parasympathetic to intrinsic eye muscles --> accomadation (change lens shape) |
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CN IV
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-Trochlear
-Mixed -Somatic sensory & motor to one of extrinsic eye muscles -Superior Orbital Fissure |
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CN V
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-Trigeminal
-Mixed -Major function is sensory nerves of face; motor for mastication (masseter muscle) 1)Opthalmic Branch: superior orbital fissure 2)Maxillary Branch: Foramen Rotundum 3)Mandibular Branch: Foramen Ovale |
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CN VI
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-Abducens
-Mixed -Somatic sensory & motor to last extrinsic eye muscle (lateral abduction) -Superior Orbital Fissure |
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CN VII
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-Facial
-Mixed -Major motor nerve for facial muscles -Sensory from Anterior 2/3 of tongue -Innervates submandibular & sublingual salivary glands -Enters Internal acoustic meatus -Exits stylomastoid foramen |
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CN VIII
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-Vestibilocochlear
-Sensory -balance & equilibrium; hearing -Enters Internal Acoustic Meatus |
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CN IX
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-Glossopharyngeal
-Mixed -Sensory from tonsils & middle ear (feeling of sore throat or ear ache) -Sensory from Posterior 1/3 of tongue -monitors blood pressure in carotid sinus -parasympathetic to parotid salivary gland -Jugular Foramen |
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CN X
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-Vagus
-Mixed -80-85% of parasympathetic efferent in body (almost all thoracic & abdominal cavity) -Jugular Foramen |
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CN XI
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-Spinal Accessory
-Mixed -ONLY spinal root; derives from cervical plexus -Sensory from & motor to sternocleidomastoid & trapezius -Jugular Foramen |
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CN XII
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-Hypoglossal
-Mixed -Somatic motor & sensory -Intrinsic muscles of tongue -Swallowing & speech -Hypoglossal Canal |
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Acuity
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-sharpness of a visual image
-Snellen Eye Test |
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Astigmatism
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-abnormal curvature of cornea
-are lines wavy or different darkness |
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Accomodation
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-ability to adjust focusing apparatus to account for changes in distance
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Presbyopia
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-ability for lens to accommodate decreases as we age
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Convergence
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-medial movement of eyes to focus on near object
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Blind Spot
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-point of optic disc, where there are no photoreceptors
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Color Blindness
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-color vision deficiency
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Binocular Vision
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-Gives depth perception
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