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158 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Central Nervous System
Brain & Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System
12 pairs of cranial nerves
31 pairs of spinal nerves
Ganglia
collection of nerve cell bodies; contains nucleus outside of CNS
Neural tube
gives rise to CNS
Neural Crest
-forms PNS
-spinal ganglia, ANS ganglia, some cranial nerve ganglia, meninges of brain & spinal cord
Glial Cells
-support cells; "glue"
-outnumber neurons from between 500-50:1
Monosynaptic Reflex Arc
-Simplest reflex arc
-one sensory & one motor neuron
Visceral = autonomic (same thing)
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, & glands
Afferent Division
brings sensory info to CNS from receptors in peripheral tissue/organs
Efferent Division
carries motor commands from CNS to muscles, glands, and adipose tissue
Somatic Nervous System
Movement of skeletal muscle both voluntary & involuntary
Autonomic Nervous System
Automatic regulation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, & glands. Includes Sympathetic and Parasympathetic divisions.
Sympathetic
Fight or Flight
Parasympathetic
Rest & Digest
Dendrites
collect signal and carry it to cell body
Axon
conducts signal away from cell body
uni-polar neuron
-neuron that only has one process that acts as both axon & dendrite
Pseudounipolar neuron
-has separate axon and dendrite
-Somatic Senses
Bipolar Neurons
special senses (smell, sight, hearing)
Multipolar Neurons
-All motor neurons that control skeletal muscle
reflex arc
stimulus --> receptor --> afferent pathway --> integration center --> efferent pathway --> effector
Nissl Bodies
represent large agregates of ribosomes in cell body
Lipofuscin granules
lysosomes that are used up & collect in the cytoplasm
Golgi Stain
Uses gold or other heavy metal to show processes of neuron
Schwann Cells
Internodes in PNS
Nodes of Ranvier
Space between myelin on axons
Myelinated
has multiple wrappings of Schwann Cells
Unmeylinated
No Schwann Cell of lies in indentation of a Schwann Cell
Hierarchy of Neural Tissue
Epineurium (Surrounds entire Nerve) --> Perineurium (Surrounds one fascicle) --> Endoneurium (Surrounds individual Axons)
Satellite Cells
-Part of PNS
-Surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia
Schwann Cells
-Part of PNS
-Surround all axons in PNS
-Responsible for myelination of Peripheral cells
-Help repair process after injury
Oligiodendrocytes
-Part of CNS
-Myelinate CNS axons
Astrocytes
-CNS
-Maintain blood-brain barrier
-provide structural support
-connected by gap junctions (functional syncichium)
Microglia
-CNS
-immune defense in CNS
-Remove cell debris, wastes, and pathogens by phagocytosis
Ependymal Cells
-CNS
-Lines ventricles of brain & central canal of spinal cord
-Assist in producing, circulating, and monitoring cerebrospinal fluid
White Matter
-part of brain with myelin
-on inside of brain, but outside of spinal cord
Gray Matter
-unmyelinated
-on outside of brain, but inside of spinal cord
Cell Membrane Permeability
-Partially due to lipid portion of lipid bilayer
-lipophillic molecules tend to get through easily
-large molecules & hydrophillic molecules don't get through easily
-Cell membrane allows for concentration gradient
-Proteins are large & become trapped inside cell (reason for negative charge inside cell)
-
Concentration Gradient
-Necessary for life
Na+
always high outside of cell & low inside
K+
always high inside of cell & low outside
leakage channels
-always open, allowing Na/K to move down concentration gradients
-many K+ pores, but few Na+ pores
-Membrane very permeable to K+ = low resistance to K+
-Membrane relatively permeable to Na+ = high resistance to Na+
Na/K pump
-moves ions against their concentration gradients using ATP
-Exactly balances leakage channels
Ohm's Law
I = E/R
I--> current; E--> potential; R--> resistance
-greater potential = greater current
-greater resistance = smaller current
Membrane Potential
-voltage difference between interior & exterior of cell
-measured inside relative to outside (-65mV = 65mV more negative inside than outside)
-
Nernst Equation
used to figure out transmembrane potential
Resting Membrane Potential
-Around -70 mV
-Na+ never realizes full potential (+65mV)
-K+ never realizes full potential (-90mV)
Goldman Equation
-Nernst equation with permeability factor
-Observed membrane potential
Exciteable Cells
-Have channels that can open or close when appropriately stimulated
-closed = low permeability, high resistance
-open = high permeability, low resistance
Stimulus
-change in environment that can change permeability of cell
Voltage Gated Channels
Na+
1)closed but able to open (-70mV)
2)open (-50 to +35 mV)
3)closed and unable to open (+30 to -70mV)
K+
1)closed (-70 to +30mV)
2)open (+30 to -80mV)
Concentration/Chemical Force
-ions move down gradient when channels are open
Electrical Force
-All positive ions pulled toward negative charge inside cell
Potassium
-large chemical gradient out
-small chemical gradient in
= fairly large chemical gradient out
Sodium
-chemical & electrical gradient in to cell
Depolarization
includes influx of positive charge & moves from a resting potential of -70mV toward 0mV
Repolarization
moves back toward resting potential after depolarization
Hyperpolarization
potential drops below (gets more negative) than resting potential of -70mV
Depolarzaion
Upward deflection = decrease in potential = influx of Na+
Hyperpolarization
Downward deflection = increase in potential = efflux of K+
Graded Potential
-LOCAL change in the membrane potential relative to the resting potential
-As you move away from initial site of potential change, decremental spread of graded potential
-Stronger stimulus creates a greater change in the transmembrane potential & effects a larger area
-SUMMATE
-In general, all postsynaptic membrane events are graded potentials & may or may not elicit an action potential
Neuromuscular Junction
only place that skips a graded potential and goes straight to action potential
Subthreshold Stimuli
results in graded potential
Threshold Stimuli
-results in action potential
-Thresholds vary
Action Potential
-all or nothing event
-always depolarizaing
-NEVER SUMMATE
Hodgkins cycle
-Positive feedback loop responsible for rapid depolarization
Absolute Refractory Period
period when a second stimulus, no matter how strong, will not excite the neuron
Relative Refractory Period
a stronger than normal stimulus is needed to elicit neuronal excitation.
Frequency Coding
-When a stimulus is MAINTAINED that is just enough to reach threshold, subsequent action potentials occur after the relative refractory period ends
-A supra-threshold stimulus can elicit action potentials more frequently (overcome relative refractory period)
Recovery of excitability
As Na+ channels begin to recover from inactivation, excitability is gradually restored.
Intensity Coding
How neurons communicate
Continuous Propagation
-Action Potential at point A depolarizes next section and triggers Action potential at Point B and so on until Action potential reaches end
-Not same exact AP throughout, but series of equal AP's
Saltatory Propagation
-In myelinated axons, the action potential jumps from node to node
-faster and uses less energy
Excitatory postsynaptic potentia
Decreases in potential = influx of a positive ion e.g. Na+ = EPSP
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
Increases in potential = efflux of a positive ion e.g. K+ = IPSP
Terminal Button
where axon ends
Type A Fibers
-Largest (4 to 20 micrometer diameter)
-myelinated
-Conduct action potentials at 120 meters per second
Type B Fibers
-Intermediate (2 to 4 micrometer diameter)
-myelinated
-conduct action potentials at 18 meter per second
Type C Fibers
-Smallest (less than 2 micrometer diameter)
-unmyelinated
-conduct action potentials at 1 meter per second
Neurotransmitters
1)Acetylcholine
2)Biogenic Amines: Norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, seratonin, histamine
3)Amino Acids: glutamate, aspartate, GABA, glycine
4)Neuropeptides: Substance P, opiods (endorphins & enkephalins)
5)Hormones: ADH, oxytocin, insulin, glucagon
6)Gases: Carbon Monoxide, Nitric Oxide
Effect of Neurotransmitter
Depends on receptor
Synaptic Delay
time it takes to process information and transmit potential
Convergence
multiple neurons lead to one neuron
Divergence
one neuron branches off into multiple neurons
Spatial Summation
addition of many potentials arriving from different sources at the same time
Temporal Summation
addition of stimuli occurring in rapid succession at a single synapse
Synapses
1)Axosomatic: an axon terminal ending on the soma of a neuron
2)Axoaxonic: an axon terminal contacting another axon terminal
3)Axodendritic: an axon ending on a dendrite
Presynaptic Inhibition
-ex. axoaxonic release of GABA inhibits the opening of voltage gated calcium channels in the synaptic knob
Presynaptic Facilitation
-ex. axoaxonic activity increases the amount of a neurotransmitter released when an action potential arrives at the synaptic knob
Spinal Nerve Segments
-C 1-8 (takes name from vertebrate inferior to it)
-T 1-12 (takes name from vertebrate superior to it)
-L 1-5
-S 1-5
-Coccygeal
Conus Medullaris
Termination of spinal cord at about L 1 or 2 (vertebrate)
Spinal Nerves
-Mixed Nerves
-31 Pairs
Cervical Enlargement
-C4 - T1
-supplies nerves to shoulders and upper limbs
Lumbar Enlargement
-T11 - L1
-innervates pelvis & lower limbs
Filum Terminale
slender strand of fibrous tissue extending from the tip of the conus medullaris and provides longitudinal support as a component of the coccygeal ligament
Dorsal Roots
bring sensory information into the spinal cord
Ventral Roots
contain the axons of motor neurons that extend into the periphery to control somatic & visceral effectors
Spinal Meninges
1)Dura Mater
2)Arachnoid Mater
3)Pia Mater
-Provide stability & protection for spinal cord
Cervical Plexus
-C 1-5
-Motor to extrinsic laryngeal muscles
-Motor to the diaphragm
-Motor to muscles of upper chest and neck (shared with CN XI) -Sensory from upper chest, shoulder, neck and ear
Brachial Plexus
-C5 - T1
-Sensory and motor from/to skin and muscles of the pectoral girdle and upper appendages
-Root --> Trunk --> Division --> Cord
Lumbar Plexus
Sacral Plexus
LP: T12 - L4
SP: L4 - S2
-Sensory and motor from/to pelvic girdle and lower limbs
Plexus
-Interwoven Network of Nerves
-Only associated with ventral rami
Spinal Nerves C1 - C4
Breathing innervation
Spinal Nerves C4 - C6
Heart Rate innervation
Spinal Nerves S2 - S3
Bladder & Bowel innervation
Tract
bundle of nerve cell processes in CNS
Nerve
bundle of nerve cell processes in PNS
Ascending Tracts
carry sensory information towards the brain (CNS)
Descending Tracts
convey motor commands to the spinal cord (CNS)
Nucleus
Nerve cell body in CNS
Ganglion
Nerve cell body in PNS
Somatic Reflex
-Involuntary
-ex knee-jerk relfex
Visceral Reflex
autonomic reflex
Cerebrum
-conscious thought processes/intellectual function
-memory storage & processing
-Conscious & subconscious regulation of skeletal muscle
Diencephalon
1)Thalamus
2)Hypothalamus
3)Pineal gland --> endocrine function
Thalamus
relay for processing centers for sensory info
Hypothalamus
-contains a wide variety of nuclei
-involved in homeostasis
-regulate temperature, water balance, gastrointestinal function, etc.
-functional & structural connection with pineal gland
Mesencephalon
-Corpora Quadragemina: Superior & Inferior Colliculi
-processing visual and auditory data
-reflexive somatic motor response
-consciousness
Pons
-Pneumotaxic & apneustic centers modify respiration
-Relays sensory info to cerebellum & thalamus
-Subconscious somatic & visceral motor centers
Medulla Oblongata
-contains nuclei that initiate contraction of diaphragm
-origin of phrenic nerve which innervates diaphragm
-mediates cardiac activity
Cerebellum
-coordinates complex somatic motor patterns
-adjusts output of other somatic motor centers in brain and spinal cord
Hierarchy of Brain
Periosteum --> bone --> dura mater (endosteal & meningeal) --> arachnoid mater --> subarachnoid space --> pia mater --> brain

-blood vessels in arachnoid mater
Cerebrospinal Fluid
1)Cushions Neural Structures
2)Supports Brain
3)Transports nutrients, chemical messengers, and waste products
-Created from blood & returned to blood at same rate
-formed in choroid plexus
Falx Cerebri
-projects between cerebral hemispheres
-contains superior sagittal and inferior sagittal sinuses
Falx Cerebelli
divides the two hemispheres of the cerebellum
Tentorium Cerebelli
-projects between the cerebrum and cerebellum
-contains the transverse sinus
Longitudinal Fissure
between right & left cerebral hemispheres
Transverse Fissure
between cerebrum & cerebellum
Sinus Drainage
most drain into internal jugular vein
Ventricles
2 Lateral Ventricles --> interventricular foramina --> 3rd ventricle --> mesencephalic aquaduct --> fourth ventricle --> central canal of spinal cord
(also 2 lateral & 1 median aperatures in the 4th ventricle to get CSF to subarachnoid space)
Gyrus
Peaks on surface of brain
Sulcus
Valleys on surface of brain
Central Sulcus
Separates anterior & posterior portions of brain
Lateral Sulcus
Between frontal & temporal lobes
5 lobes of brain
frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital, & INSULA
Basal Ganglia
-masses of gray matter in center of brain
-relax muscle tone
-monitor motor commands over long periods of time (posture)
-Parkinson's Disease effects Basal Ganglia
Commisural Tracts
-Allow for communication between cerebral hemispheres
-Corpus Callosum, Anterior Commisure, & Posterior Commisure
Cranial Nerves
-12 Pairs
-All Parasympathetic
CN I
-Olfactory
-Sensory
-Relays Smell
-Enters through Olfactory Foramina in Cribiform Plate
-Odor dissolves in mucus -->interact with dendrites --> create action potential
-Olfactory Bulb: beginning of tact that leads to brain (where nerves collect)
CN II
-Optic
-Sensory
-Vision
-Enters through optic canal
-Retina --> optic ganglia --> optic nerve --> optic chiasma --> thalamus --> optic radiations --> primary visual cortex of occipital lobe
CN III
-Oculomotor
-Mixed
-Sensory & motor to 4 of the 6 extrinsic eye muscles
-Superior Orbital Fissure
-Parasympathetic to intrinsic eye muscles --> accomadation (change lens shape)
CN IV
-Trochlear
-Mixed
-Somatic sensory & motor to one of extrinsic eye muscles
-Superior Orbital Fissure
CN V
-Trigeminal
-Mixed
-Major function is sensory nerves of face; motor for mastication (masseter muscle)
1)Opthalmic Branch: superior orbital fissure
2)Maxillary Branch: Foramen Rotundum
3)Mandibular Branch: Foramen Ovale
CN VI
-Abducens
-Mixed
-Somatic sensory & motor to last extrinsic eye muscle (lateral abduction)
-Superior Orbital Fissure
CN VII
-Facial
-Mixed
-Major motor nerve for facial muscles
-Sensory from Anterior 2/3 of tongue
-Innervates submandibular & sublingual salivary glands
-Enters Internal acoustic meatus
-Exits stylomastoid foramen
CN VIII
-Vestibilocochlear
-Sensory
-balance & equilibrium; hearing
-Enters Internal Acoustic Meatus
CN IX
-Glossopharyngeal
-Mixed
-Sensory from tonsils & middle ear (feeling of sore throat or ear ache)
-Sensory from Posterior 1/3 of tongue
-monitors blood pressure in carotid sinus
-parasympathetic to parotid salivary gland
-Jugular Foramen
CN X
-Vagus
-Mixed
-80-85% of parasympathetic efferent in body (almost all thoracic & abdominal cavity)
-Jugular Foramen
CN XI
-Spinal Accessory
-Mixed
-ONLY spinal root; derives from cervical plexus
-Sensory from & motor to sternocleidomastoid & trapezius
-Jugular Foramen
CN XII
-Hypoglossal
-Mixed
-Somatic motor & sensory
-Intrinsic muscles of tongue
-Swallowing & speech
-Hypoglossal Canal
Acuity
-sharpness of a visual image
-Snellen Eye Test
Astigmatism
-abnormal curvature of cornea
-are lines wavy or different darkness
Accomodation
-ability to adjust focusing apparatus to account for changes in distance
Presbyopia
-ability for lens to accommodate decreases as we age
Convergence
-medial movement of eyes to focus on near object
Blind Spot
-point of optic disc, where there are no photoreceptors
Color Blindness
-color vision deficiency
Binocular Vision
-Gives depth perception