Human Structure And Function Ii Exam 4

Front 1

Dehydration

Back 1

Increased blood osmolarity and decreased blood volume and BP

Front 2

Scrotum

Back 2

contains the testes and is divided into two internal compartments by an incomplete connective tissue septum;

Front 3

Thirst Mechanisms

Back 3

Stimulation of thirst center (in hypothalamus)
1.) Angiottensin 2 produced in response to decreased blood pressure
2.) ADH produced in response to increased blood osmolarity
3.) Hypothalamic somoreceptors: signal in response to increased ECF osmolarity

Front 4

The primary female reproducive organ is the ____.

Back 4

ovaries

Front 5

Inhibition of Salivation

Back 5

Thirst center sends SYMPATHETIC signals to salivary glands

Front 6

Raphe

Back 6

an irregular ridge marking the external midline of the scrotum; continues posteriorly to the anus and anteriorly to the base of the penis

Front 7

Regulation of Output

Back 7

- Controlling Na+ re absorption (changes volume)

- as Na+ is re absorbed or excreted, water follows

Front 8

osmosis

Back 8

the net movement of water mol's thru a selectively permeable membr. from an area of high water conc. to an area of low water conc.

Front 9

Action of ADH in output

Back 9

- Changes the concentration of urine

- ADH secretion (as well as thirst center) stimulated by hypothalamic osmoreceptors in response to dehydration

- Aquaporins synthesized in response to ADH
- Membrane proteins in renal collecting ducts to channel water back into renal medulla, Na+ is still excreted

- Effects: slows (decreases) in water volume and increases osmolarity

Front 10

Dartos muscle

Back 10

a layer of smooth muscle within the scrotum; contracts when exposed to cool temperatures; pulls the skin upward, decreasing the overall size of the scrotum

Front 11

Hypovolemia

Back 11

Volume depletion, total body water decreases, osmolarity is normal

hemorrhage, severe burns, chronic vomiting or diarrhea

Front 12

This makes female gametes.

Back 12

ova

Front 13

Dehydration

Back 13

Total body water decreases,
osmolarity rises

Due to: lack of drinking water, diabetes, profuse sweating, diuretics

Front 14

Cremaster muscles

Back 14

extensions of adominal muscles into the scrotum; contract in colder temperatures to help pull the testes nearer the body, helping to keep the testes warm; relax in warm temperatures to lower the testes away from the body;
lies between the two layers of spermatic fascia covering the spermatic cord

Front 15

Infants are more vulnerable to dehydration because

Back 15

Their high metabolic rate demands high urine excretion, kidneys cannot concentrate urine effectively, greater ratio of body surface to mass

Front 16

the primary method of water movement into and out of body fluid compartments

Back 16

osmosis

Front 17

Most serious effects of dehydration

Back 17

circulatory shock, neurological dysfunction, infant mortality

Front 18

Perineum

Back 18

the area between the thighs bounded by the symphysis pubis anteriorly, the coccyx posteriorly, and the ischial tuberosities laterally

Front 19

Excess fluid leads to

Back 19

Pulmonary and cerebral edema

Front 20

Name two female sex hormones

Back 20

estrogen
progesterone

Front 21

Hypotonic Hydration

Back 21

More water than sodium retained or engested, ECF hypotonic, can cause cellular swelling (RBCs) - like drinking too much pure water can be bad for you

Front 22

Urogenital triangle

Back 22

anterior triangle within the perineum;
contains the base of the penis and the scrotum

Front 23

Potassium Homeostasis

Back 23

Aldosterone stimulates renal secretion of K+ and reabsorbs Na+

Potassium and sodium always move in opposite ways

Front 24

electrolytes

Back 24

inorganic compounds which disassociate into ions in soln.

most solutes in the body are electrolytes

Front 25

Hypercalcemia is caused by

Back 25

Alkalosis
Hyperparathyroidism
Hypothyroidism

Front 26

Anal triangle

Back 26

posterior triangle within the perineum;
contains the anal opening

Front 27

Hypercalcemia

Back 27

Decreased Na+ permeability in the membrane, inhibits depolarization

Front 28

Internal genitalia is

Back 28

ovaries
internal ducts

Front 29

What does Hypercalcemia do to the body?

Back 29

Concentrations greater than 12 mEq/L cause: muscular weakness, depressed reflexes, cardiac arrhythmias

Front 30

Testes

Back 30

small ovoid organs;
primary reproductive organ in the male;
both exocrine and endocrine glands

Front 31

Hypocalcemia is caused by

Back 31

Low levels of Vitamin D
diarrhea
Pregnancy
Acidosis
Lactation
Hypoparathyroidism
Hyperthyroidism

Front 32

most solutes in the body are:

Back 32

electrolytes

Front 33

Hypocalcemia

Back 33

Increased Na+ permeability causing nervous and muscular systems to be abnormally excitable

Front 34

Tunica albuginea

Back 34

the outer part of the testis; thick, white capsule consisting of mostly fibrous connective tissue

Front 35

What does hypocalcemia do to the body?

Back 35

Causes: Tetanus
larygnospasm
Death

Front 36

External genitalia is

Back 36

external sex organs

Front 37

Acid-Base balance of Urine

Back 37

Urine is slightly acidic, variable in how much H+ can be released in the urine, gets rid of excess acidosis?

Front 38

Septa (testes)

Back 38

connective tissue divisions within the testis that divides the internal portion of the organ into numerous lobules

Front 39

Acidosis

Back 39

H+ diffuses into the cells and drives out K+, elevating K+ in the ECF

Front 40

extracellular fluid composition

Back 40

high in Na+, Cl-, Ca++, HCO3-

Front 41

What does acidosis do to the cells?

Back 41

H+ buffered by protein in the ICF causes membrane hyperpolarization, nerve and muscle cells become harder to stimulate

Front 42

Lobules

Back 42

cone shaped compartments within the interior protion of the testis;
formed by the incomplete septa of the tunica albuginea

Front 43

What are the risks of Acidosis?

Back 43

CNS depression may lead to death

Front 44

This ligament anchors the ovary medially to the uterus

Back 44

ovarian ligament

Front 45

Alkalosis

Back 45

H+ diffuses out of the cell and K+ diffuses in.

Front 46

Seminiferous tubules

Back 46

the sight of spermatogenesis in the testes;
surrounded by a loose connective tissue stroma that surrounds the tubules and contains clusters of interstitial cells

Front 47

What does alkalosis do to the cells?

Back 47

Membrane is depolarized, nerves overstimulate

Front 48

intracellular fluid composition

Back 48

high in K+, PO4, Mg++, and more prot than plasma

Front 49

What are the risks of Alkalosis?

Back 49

Spasms, tetany, convulsions, respiratory paralysis

Front 50

Interstitial cells

Back 50

endocrine cells located between the seminiferous tubules; produce testosterone

Front 51

This ligament contains the suspensory ligament and the mesovarium

Back 51

Broad ligament

Front 52

Tubuli recti

Back 52

a set of short, straight tubules into which the seminiferous tubules empty

Front 53

blood plasma has more of this than interstitial fluid and lymph

Back 53

proteins

Front 54

Rete testis

Back 54

a tubular network into which the tubuli recti empty

Front 55

This ligment anchors he ovary laterally to the pelvic wall

Back 55

Suspensory ligament

Front 56

Efferent ductules

Back 56

each testis contains 15-20 of these tubules into which the rete testis empties into; pierce the tunica albuginea to exit the testes;
inner layer contains ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium that helps move sperm cells out of the testis

Front 57

in blood, osmotic pressure is referred to:

Back 57

colloid osmotic pressure (COP)

Front 58

Gubernaculum

Back 58

a fibromuscular cord that attaches the testes to the tissue that will become the scrotum; developed by the 14th week

Front 59

This ligament suspends the ovary in between

Back 59

Mesovarium ligament

Front 60

Inguinal canal

Back 60

bilateral oblique passageways in the anterior abdominal wall;
forms between weeks 14 and 28; testes move through them to descend into the srotum;
much smaller in females

Front 61

main regulator of water

Back 61

thirst

Front 62

Process vaginallis

Back 62

an outpocketing of the peritoneum that precedes the descent of the testes

Front 63

This is the blood supply for the ovaries

Back 63

Ovarian arteries and the ovarian branch of the uterine tube

Front 64

Tunica vagnialis

Back 64

the residual portion of the process vaginallis in adults; surrounds most of the testis, small amount of fluid in it allows the testis to move with little friction; a serous membrane consisting of a layer of simple squamous epithelium that rests on a basement membrane

Front 65

dehydration, as little as 1% decrease in body water causes:

Back 65

decreased saliva production.
increased blood osmotic pressure - stim. osmorecept's in hypothalamus.
decreased blood vol. - renin is produced.

Front 66

Deep inguinal rings

Back 66

origination point of the inguinal canal; open through the aponeuroses of the transverse abdominal muscles

Front 67

These are embedded in the ovary cortex

Back 67

ovarian follicles

Front 68

Superficial inguinal rings

Back 68

termination point of the inguinal canals; opening in the aponeuroses of the external abdominal oblique muscles

Front 69

infants are about what percent water and why?

Back 69

73%
b/c of the low body fat and low bone mass

Front 70

Cryptorchidism

Back 70

a failure of one or both of the testes to descend into the scrotum; the higher temperature of the abdominal caivty prevents nromal sperm production

Front 71

An immature egg is called

Back 71

oocyte

Front 72

Spermatogenesis

Back 72

the process of sperm cell development

Front 73

a healthy young adult male is about what percent water

Back 73

60%

Front 74

Sustentacular cells (Sertoli cells)

Back 74

large cells that extend from the periphery to the lumen of the seminiferous tubule;
nourish germ cells; probably work with interstitial cells in producing numeorus hormones

Front 75

The cells that surround the oocyte are called

Back 75

follicle cells- one layer thick
granulosa cells-more than one layer is present

Front 76

Blood-testis barrier

Back 76

tight juncitons located between sustentacular cells; isolates sperm cells from the immune system;
significant because as sperm cells develop, they form surface antigens that the immune system would attack

Front 77

a healthy young adult female is about what percent water

Back 77

50%

Front 78

Dihydrotestosterone

Back 78

a hormone produced in sustentacular cells from testosterone

Front 79

This follicle is a secondary follicle at its most mature stage that bulges from the surface of the ovary

Back 79

Graafian follicle

Front 80

Androgen-binding protein

Back 80

a protein secreted into the seminiferous tubules by the sustentacular cells;
carries hormones created in the testis to the epididymis

Front 81

why do females typically have less body water content than males?

Back 81

b/c females have relatively more body fat and less muscle

adipose tissue is the least hydrated (a/b 20%)
muscles is a/b 75%

Front 82

Spermatogonia

Back 82

the most peripheral cells in the seminiferous tubules;
divide by mitosis

Front 83

What follicle has one layer of squamouslike follicle cells surrounds the oocyte

Back 83

Primordial follicle

Front 84

Primary spermatocyte

Back 84

spermatocyte arising by a growth phase from a spermatogonium; gives rise to secondary spermatocytes after first meiotic division

Front 85

2 main fluid compartments of the body

Back 85

intracellular fluid
extracellular fluid

Front 86

Secondary spermatocyte

Back 86

spermatocyte derived from a primary spermatocyte by the first meitoic division;
each secondary spermatocyte gives rise by the second meiotic division to two spermatids

Front 87

What follicle has two or more layers of cuboidal granulosa cells enclose the oocyte.

Back 87

Primary follicle

Front 88

Spermatids

Back 88

immature sperm cells that result fromt the secondary spermatocyte by the second meiotic division

Front 89

2 subcomponents of extracellular fluid

Back 89

plasma
interstitial fluid

Front 90

Spermiogenesis

Back 90

the process by which a spermatid becomes a spermatozoan;
during this time, the head, midpiece and tail are formed

Front 91

What follicle has a fluid-filled space between granulosa cells that coalesces to form a central antrum

Back 91

Secondary follicle

Front 92

Spermatozoan

Back 92

a mature sperm cell

Front 93

nonelectrolytes

Back 93

have bonds (usually covalent) that prevent them from dissociating in soln

most are organic mol's

Front 94

Acrosome

Back 94

a cap on the head of the spermatozoan;
contains hydrolytic enzymes used to pierce the surface of the secondary oocyte

Front 95

This is the ejection of the oocyte from the ripening follicle

Back 95

Ovulation

Front 96

Epididymis

Back 96

a comma shaped structure on the posterior side of the testis into which the efferent ductus leads;
site of final sperm cell maturation

Front 97

most nonelectrolytes are what type of molecule

Back 97

organic molecules

Front 98

Duct of the epididymis

Back 98

a convoluted structure of the epididymis through which sperm cells move;
contains pseudostratified columnar epithelium with elongated microvilli

Front 99

This is a ruptured after ovulation

Back 99

Corpus luteum

Front 100

Stereocilia

Back 100

elongated microvilli within the duct of the epididymis that function to increase the surface area of the epithelial cells that absorb fluid from the lumen of the duct

Front 101

examples of nonelectrolytes

Back 101

glucose, lipids, creatinine, urea

Front 102

Ductus deferens (vas deferens)

Back 102

the emerging end of the epididymis, ascends along the posterior side of the testis medial to the epididymis and become associated with the blood vessels and nerves that supply the testis

Front 103

_______ receives the ovulated oocyte and provide a site for fertilization

Back 103

Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes( and oviducts

Front 104

Spermatic cord

Back 104

a structure conssisting of the ductus deferens, the testicular artery and venous plexus, lymphatic vessels, nerves, fibrous remnant of the process vaginallis

Front 105

electrolytes

Back 105

chemical compounds that dissociate into ions in water

typically include:
inorganic salts
inorganic and organic acids and bases
some proteins

Front 106

External and Internal spermatic fascia

Back 106

external and internal connective tissue layers the surround the spermatic cord

Front 107

The uterine tubes empty into the superlateral region of the uterus via the _____.

Back 107

isthmus

Front 108

Ampulla

Back 108

an enlargement at the end of the ductus deferens

Front 109

why do electrolytes have greater osmotic power than nonelectrolytes?

Back 109

b/c water moves according to osmotic gradients, from areas of less osmolality to areas of greater osmolality, electrolytes have the greatest ability to cause fluid shifts.

Front 110

Ejaculatory duct

Back 110

a short duct leading from the seminal vesicle and joining the ampulla of the ductus deferens;
project into the prostata gland and end by opening into the urethra

Front 111

The uterine tubes expand distally around the ovary forming the ______.

Back 111

ampulla

Front 112

Male urethra

Back 112

extends from the urinary bladder to the distal end of the penis;
passageway for male reproductive fluids and urine; divided into three parts, prostatic, membranous, and spongy

Front 113

chief cation and anion of ECF

Back 113

cation - Na+
anion - Cl-

Front 114

Prostatic urethra

Back 114

a section of the male urethra that is connected to the urinary bladder and passes through the prostate gland;
ejaculatory ducts and other ducts join the urethra here

Front 115

The ampulla ends in the funnel-shaped, ciliated infundibulum containing fingerlike projections called_______.

Back 115

fimbriae

Front 116

Membranous urethra

Back 116

shortest part of the urethra;
extends from the prostate gland through the perineum

Front 117

how much Na+ and Cl- ions does ICF contain?

Back 117

small amounts in comparison to ECF.

Front 118

Spongy urethra

Back 118

the longest part of the urethra;
extends from the membranous urethra through the length of the penis

Front 119

The uterine tubes have no contact with the ovaries and the ovulated oocyte is cast into the _______ cavity.

Back 119

peritoneal

Front 120

Penis

Back 120

male copulatory organ

Front 121

most abundant cation and anion in ICF

Back 121

cation - K+
anion - HPO4-

Front 122

Corpora cavernosa

Back 122

two erectile columns that form the dorsum and sides of the penis; during erection, these fill with blood

Front 123

What causes the currents to carry the oocyte into the uterine tube?

Back 123

beating cilia onthe fimbriae

Front 124

Corpus spongiosum

Back 124

erectile column that forms the ventral portion of the penis; expands to form a cap called the glans penis; urethra passes through

Front 125

does ICF or ECF contain the most soluble prot's

Back 125

ICF contains three times the amount of soluble prot's

Front 126

Glans penis

Back 126

a cap formed over the distal end of the penis by the corpus spongiosum

Front 127

Visceral peritoneum that supports the uterine tubes

Back 127

Mesosalpinx

Front 128

External urethral orifice

Back 128

the external opening of the urehtra

Front 129

male accessory sex glands

Back 129

seminal vesicles
prostate
bulbourethral glands

Front 130

Seminal vesicles

Back 130

sac-shaped glands located next to the ampullae of the ductus deferentia; have capsules containing fibrous connective tissue and smooth muscle cells

Front 131

Hollow, thick-walled organ located in the pelvis anterior to the rectum and posterosuperior to the bladder.

Back 131

Uterus

Front 132

Prostate gland

Back 132

consists of both glandular and muscular tissue and is about the size and shape of a walnut; dorsal to the symphysis pubis at the base of the urinary bladder

Front 133

temperature of testes

Back 133

a/b 3 degrees celcius lower than rest of body

impt for sperm viability

Front 134

Bulbourethral glands

Back 134

a pair of small glands located near the membranous part of the urethra; small ducts from each gland unite to form a single duct which enters the songy urethra at the base of the penis

Front 135

The major portion on the uterus is called the

Back 135

body

Front 136

Semen

Back 136

a composite of sperm cells and secretions from the male reproductive glands;
60% from the seminal vesicles
30% from the prostate gland
5% from the testes
5% from the bulbourehtral glands

Front 137

muscles associated w/ testes

Back 137

dartos
cremaster

Front 138

Emission

Back 138

discharge and acculmulation of semen into the prostatic urethra; sympathetic reactions cause peristalsis, causing semen to be released in to the prostatic urethra

Front 139

The rounded region superior to the entrance of the uterine tubes is called the

Back 139

fundus

Front 140

Ejaculation

Back 140

the forceful expulsion of semen from the urethra caused by the contraction of the urethra, the skeletal muscles in the floow of the pelvis, and the muscles at the base of the penis

Front 141

dartos muscle

Back 141

wrinkles the scrotal skin
layer of SM in superficial facia

Front 142

What type of cells keep the oocyte and the sperm nourished and moist?

Back 142

nonciliated cells

Front 143

cremaster muscle

Back 143

elevates the testes
arise from internal oblique muscle
bands of skeletal muscle

Front 144

This is the narrowed region between the body and the cervix.

Back 144

Isthmus

Front 145

2 tunics of testes

Back 145

tunica vaginalis - outer tunic

tunica albuginea - fibrous capsule deep to tunica vaginalis.

Front 146

The narrow neck which projects into the vagina inferiorly

Back 146

Cervix

Front 147

fibrous capsule of testes

Back 147

tunica albuginea

Front 148

What are the primary effects of LH on the male reproductive system?

Back 148

binds to interstital cells in the testes and causes them to increase their rate of testosterone synthesis and secretion

Front 149

The cavity of the cervix that communcates with the bagina via the external os and the uterine body via the interal os

Back 149

cervical canal

Front 150

What are the primary effects of FSH on the male reproductive system?

Back 150

binds primarily to sustentacular cells in the seminiferous tubules and promotes sperm cell development

Front 151

seminiferous tubules

Back 151

sperm factories

surrounded my myoid cells - help squeeze sperm and fluids out of testes

Front 152

Testosterone

Back 152

the major male hormone secreted by the testes; classified as an andorgen because it stimulates the development of male reproductive organs; also regulates GnRH secretion

Front 153

These glands secrete mucus that covers the external os and blocks sperm entry except during midcycle.

Back 153

Cervical glands

Front 154

Inhibin

Back 154

a hormone secreted by the sustentacular cells of the seminiferous tubules; inhibits FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary

Front 155

seminiferous tubules converge to form:

Back 155

tubule rectus

conveys sperm to rete testis

Front 156

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

Back 156

a gonadotropin-like hormone secreted by the placenta;
stimulates the synthesis and secretion of testosterone by the fetal testes before birth

Front 157

This is the portion of the broad ligament that supports the uterus laterally

Back 157

Mesometrium

Front 158

Puberty

Back 158

the age at which individuals become capable of sexual reproduction;
during this stage, the hypothalamus becomes much less sensitive to the inhibitory effects of androgens, GnRH secretions increase

Front 159

sperm are stored where?

Back 159

tail of epididymis

Front 160

What are some of the effets of testosterone on the body?

Back 160

hair growth, coarser skin, increase the rate of sebaceous secretions in facial region, hypertrophy of larynx, reduced tension in vocal cords, general stimulatory effect on metabolism, sodium retention, promotes protein synthesis, rapid bone growth

Front 161

This extends from the cervix and superior part of the vagina to the lateral walls of the pelvis.

Back 161

Lateral cervical ligaments

Front 162

Orgasm

Back 162

a climactic sensation that occurs during the male sexual act, associated with ejaculation

Front 163

interstitial cells

Back 163

also leydig cells

in soft connective tissue surrounding seminiferous tubules.

produce androgens, most importantly testosterone.

Front 164

Resolution

Back 164

Post-ejaculatory phase in which the penis becomes flaccid, an overall feeling of satisfaction exists, and the male is unable to achieve erection

Front 165

These are paired ligaments that secure the uterus to the sacrum

Back 165

Uterosacral ligaments

Front 166

Impotence

Back 166

the inability to achieve or maintain an erection and to accomplish the male sexual act

Front 167

interstitial cells, or leydig cells, produce:

Back 167

androgens, most importantly testosterone.

Front 168

Describe the pathway by which the male sexual response is executed.

Back 168

action potentials are conducted by sensory neurons from the genitals through the pudendal nerve to the sacral region of the spinal cord where reflexes are conducted;
action potentials from the cerebrum reinforce the sacral reflexes;
nerve fibers release ACh and NO (smooth muscle relaxation)

Front 169

The uterine wall is composed of three layers. What are they?

Back 169

perimetrium - outermost layer, the visceral peritoneum
Myometrium - middle layer, interlacing layers of smooth muscle
Endometrium- mucosal lining of the uterine cavity

Front 170

Erection

Back 170

parasympathetic; the first major component of the male sexual act; occurs when the penis becomes enlarged and rigid from blood filling the sinusoids of erectile tissue; results from ACh and NO release from pudendal nerve

Front 171

how does the testiculear blood supply help regulate testicular temperature?

Back 171

cooler venous blood in the pampiniform venous plexus absorbs heat from arterial blood.

Front 172

Broad ligament

Back 172

an extension of the peritoneum that spreads out on both sides of the uterus and to which the ovaries and uterine tubes are attached;

Front 173

The is the outermost layer of the uterine wall

Back 173

perimetrium

Front 174

Ovaries

Back 174

female reproductive organs;
site of oogenesis

Front 175

corpus spongiosum

Back 175

erectile tissue

surrounds urethra

forms glans distally and bulb of the penis proximally

Front 176

Mesovarium

Back 176

a peritoneal fold that attaches each ovary to the posterior surface of the brad ligament

Front 177

This is the middle layer of the uterine wall

Back 177

Myometrium

Front 178

Suspensory ligament

Back 178

extends from the mesovarium to the body wall, helping to support the ovaries

Front 179

corpus cavernosa

Back 179

makes up most of penis

bound by fibrous tunica albuginea

forms crura of the penis proximally

Front 180

Ovarian ligament

Back 180

attaches the ovary to the superior margin of the uterus

Front 181

This is the mucosal lining of the uterine cavity

Back 181

Endometrium

Front 182

efferent ductules location

Back 182

head of epididymis

Front 183

This undergoes cyclic changes in response to ovarian hormones

Back 183

Srtatum functionalis

Front 184

site of sperm maturation and storage.

Back 184

epididymis

Front 185

This forms a new functionalis after menstration ends and does not respnd to ovarian hormones

Back 185

Stratum basalis

Front 186

trace the route of ductus deferens from testes

Back 186

begins as part of spermatic cord from epididymis
passes thru inguinal canal
loops around ureter
passes down back of urinary bladder.

Front 187

The thin-walled tube lying between the bladder and the rectum, extending from the cervix to the exterior of the body is the

Back 187

vagina

Front 188

what composes the spermatic cord?

Back 188

ductus deferens, blood vessels, lymph vessels, cremaster muscle, nerves

Front 189

The urethra is embedded in the ______ wall

Back 189

anterior

Front 190

location of seminal vesicles

Back 190

posterior urinary bladder surface

Front 191

This provides a passageway for birth, menstrual flow, and is the organ of copulation.

Back 191

Vagina

Front 192

seminal vesicle secretion

Back 192

an alkaline viscous fluid
fructose - E for sperm
prostaglandins - for sperm motility and viability
semeogelin - a coagulation protein.

accouts for 70% of semen volume.

Front 193

Name the three coats of the vaginal wall

Back 193

Fibroelastic adventitia
smooth muscle muscularis
Stratisfied squamous mucosa

Front 194

prostaglandins

Back 194

role in sperm motility and viability.

causes muscular contractions of female reproductive organs

Front 195

Mucosa near the vaginal orifice forms an incomplete partition called the ______.

Back 195

hymen

Front 196

This is the upper end of the vagina surrounding the cervix.

Back 196

vaginal fornix

Front 197

This lies external to the vagina and includes the mons pubis, labia, clitoris, and vestibular structures

Back 197

vulva (pudendum)

Front 198

This round, fatty area overlying the pubic symphysis is the

Back 198

mons pubis

Front 199

Enlongated, hair-covered, fatty skin folds homoolgous to the male scrotum

Back 199

Labia majoria

Front 200

Hair free skin folds lying within the labia majora; homologous to the ventral penis

Back 200

Labia minora

Front 201

These are pea sized gland flanking the vagina, homologous to the bulbourethral glands and keep the vestibule moist and lubricated

Back 201

Vulva

Front 202

Erectile tissue hooded by the prepuse and the exposed portion is called the glans

Back 202

Clitoris

Front 203

Diamond-shaped region between the pubic arch and coccyx and bordered by the ischial tuberosities laterally

Back 203

Perineum

Front 204

These are modifed sweat glands consisting of 15-25 lobes that radiate around and open at the nipple

Back 204

mammary glands

Front 205

Pigmented skin surrounding the nipple

Back 205

areola

Front 206

Lobes contain ____ _____ that produce milk in lactating women

Back 206

glandular alveoli

Front 207

What glands pass milk to lactiferous ducts, which open to the outside

Back 207

Compound alveolar glands

Front 208

Breast cancer usually arises from the ______ cells of the ducts.

Back 208

dpithelial

Front 209

This is the production of female sex cells by meiosis

Back 209

oogenesis

Front 210

When is the total supply of eggs determined?

Back 210

by the time she is born

Front 211

In the fetal period, oogonia multiply by

Back 211

Mitosis and store nutrients

Front 212

These follicles appear as oogonia are transfomred into primary oocytes

Back 212

Primoridal follicles

Front 213

Primary oocytes begin meiosis but stall in

Back 213

Prophase I

Front 214

At puberty, one activated primary oocyte produces two _____ cells

Back 214

haploid

Front 215

The first two haploid cells are

Back 215

first polar body
secondary oocyte

Front 216

The secondary oocyte arrests in metaphase II and is _____.

Back 216

ovulated

Front 217

If penetrated by sperm, the second oocyte completed ______.

Back 217

meiosis II

Front 218

The second oocyte completed meiois II and yields ______ and ______.

Back 218

one large ovum (the functional gamete)
A tiny second polar body

Front 219

The ovarian cycle is a monthly series of events associated with _____________.

Back 219

the maturation of an egg

Front 220

This is the period of follicle growth (days 1 - 14)

Back 220

follicular phase

Front 221

This is the period of corpus luteum activity (days 14 - 28)

Back 221

Luteal phase

Front 222

When does ovulation occur?

Back 222

midcycle

Front 223

The primary follicle becomes a secondary follicle when

Back 223

The theca folliculi and granulosa cells cooperate to produce estrogens
The zona pellucidaforms around the oocyte
The antrum is formed

Front 224

The secondary follicle becomes a vesicular folllicle when

Back 224

The antrum expands and isolates the ocyte and the corona radiata
The full size follicle bulges from the external surface of the ovary
The primary oocyte completes meiosis 1, and the stage is set for ovulation

Front 225

When does ovulation occur?

Back 225

When the ovary wall ruptures and expels the secondary oocyte

Front 226

A twinge of pain sometimes felt at ovulation

Back 226

Mittelschmerz

Front 227

1 - 2 percent of ovulations release more than one secondary oocyte, which if fertilized, results in

Back 227

fraternal twins

Front 228

In this phase, after ovulation, the ruptured follicle collapses, granulosa cells enlarge, and along with internal thecal cells, form the corupus leteum.

Back 228

Luteal Phase

Front 229

What does the corpus leteum secrete?

Back 229

progesterone and estrogen

Front 230

If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteium degenerages in 10 days and leaves a scar known as

Back 230

corpus albicans

Front 231

If pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum produces hormones until the _____________.

Back 231

placenta takes over

Front 232

During childhood, ovaries grow and secrete small amounts of estrogens that inhibit the hypothalamic release of ______

Back 232

GnRH

Front 233

As puberty nears, GnRH is released: FSH and LH are released by the _________, which act on the ovaries

Back 233

pituitary

Front 234

The ovarian cycle continues until an adult cyclic pattern is achieved and _________ occurs

Back 234

menarche

Front 235

Day 1 of the ovairan cycle, GnRH stimualtes the release of _________.

Back 235

FSH and LH

Front 236

What does FSH and LH stimulage?

Back 236

The follicle growth and maturation, and low-level estrogen release

Front 237

This inhibits the release of FSH and LH

Back 237

rising estrogen levels

Front 238

Estrogen levels increase during the ovarian cycle and high estrogen levels have a positive feedback effect on the pituitary, causing a sudden surge of ____.

Back 238

LH

Front 239

The LH spike stimulates the primary oocyte to complete _________, and the secondary oocyte continues on to ___________.

Back 239

meiosis I
metaphase II

Front 240

LH triggers ovualtion on what day?

Back 240

day 14

Front 241

LH transforms the ruptured follicle into a corpus luteum, which produces ______, _______, and _______.

Back 241

inhibin
progesterone
estrogen

Front 242

During what days does the decline of the ovarian hormones occur, the blockade of FSH and LH, and the cycle starts anew

Back 242

Days 26 - 28

Front 243

Series of cyclic changes that the uterine edometrium goes through each month in response to ovarian hormones in the blood.

Back 243

uterine (menstral) cycle

Front 244

Days 1 - 5

Back 244

Menstrual phase - uterus sheds all but the deepest part of the endometrium

Front 245

Days 6 - 14

Back 245

Proliferative (preovulatory) phase - endometrium rebuilds itself

Front 246

Days 15 - 28

Back 246

Secretory (postovulatory) phase - endometrium prepares for implantation of the embryo

Front 247

If fertilization does not occur, progesterone levels fall, depriving the endometrium of hormonal support

Back 247

mensus

Front 248

Estrogen levels rise during

Back 248

puberty

Front 249

Secondary sex characteristics consist of

Back 249

growth of breasts
increased deposition of subcutaneous fat, especially int he hips and breasts
Widening and lightening of the pelvis
Growth of axillary and pubic hair

Front 250

the clitoris, vaginal mucosa and breasts engorge with blood consist of

Back 250

female sexual responses

Front 251

Activity of these glands lubricate the vestibule and facilitates entry of the penis

Back 251

vestibular glands

Front 252

accompanied by muscle tension, increase in pulse rate and blood pressure, and rhythmical contractions of the uterus is

Back 252

an orgasm

Front 253

Genetic sex is determined by the sex chromosomes that each _____ contains

Back 253

gamete

Front 254

What are the two sex chromosomes?

Back 254

X and Y

Front 255

Females have ______ sex chromosome(s)

Back 255

2

Front 256

What are the mens sex chromosomes?

Back 256

1 - X
1 - Y

Front 257

All eggs have an ____ chromosome; half the sperm have an ____ and the other half a _____.

Back 257

all eggs - X
1/2 sperm X other 1/2 Y

Front 258

This gene iniates testes development and determines maleness

Back 258

A single gene on the Y chromosome; SRY gene

Front 259

a secondary oocyte can be fertilized for a/b how long after ovulation?

Back 259

24 hours

Front 260

sperm remain viable for how long inside the female reproductive tract?

Back 260

48 hours

Front 261

when can intercourse result in fertilization?

Back 261

there is a/b a 3 day window for fertilization to occur.
2 days before ovulation
1 day after ovulation

Front 262

where does fertilization usually take place?

Back 262

the outer 1/3 of the uterine tube
can occur in the abdominal cavity

Front 263

functional change sperm undergo in the female tract

Back 263

capacitation

Front 264

capacitation

Back 264

functional change sperm undergo in the female tract.

membr. around acrosome becomes fragile and its enzymes are released.
this prevents premature release of enzymes and autolysis of sperm in the male tract.

Front 265

dizygotic twins

Back 265

fraternal twins

occurs when two seperate eggs are ovulated
maybe different sexes

Front 266

monozygotic twins

Back 266

identical twins

occurs when a single egg is fertilized but dividing cells break into two groups and develop into two individuals.
genetically identical.

Front 267

outer layer of cells of the blastocyst

Back 267

trophoblast

Front 268

fluid filled cavity of blastocyst

Back 268

blastocele

Front 269

blastocyst structure

Back 269

outer layer of cells - trophoblast
inner cell mass
fluid filled cavity - blastocele

Front 270

forms the embryo

Back 270

most of the inner cell mass of trophoblast

Front 271

forms membranes of fetal portion of placenta

Back 271

trophoblast and part of the inner cell mass

Front 272

implantation

Back 272

blastocyst remains free in uterus for a short time, during which the zona pellucida disintegrates.
blastocyst is nourished by glycogen for endometrium glands.
a/b 6 days after ovulation, blastocyst implants - orients cell mass towards endometrium and secretes enzymes which allow it to penetrate, or digest, the endometrium wall.
this nourishes blastocyst for a/b 1 wk after implantation.

Front 273

where can implantation occur?

Back 273

uterus, uterine tube, cervix, abdominal cavity

implantation anywhere outside the uterus is called an ectopic pregnancy.

Front 274

hCG

Back 274

human chorionic gonadotropin

blastocyst begins to secrete hCG 8-12 days after fertilization

Front 275

what is the function of hCG?

Back 275

keeps the corpus luteum active until the placenta can produce estrogens and progesterone.

precense of hCG is basis for pregnancy test.

Front 276

inner cell mass forms what 2 cavities?

Back 276

yolk sac
amniotic cavity

Front 277

yolk sac

Back 277

1 of 2 inner cell mass cavities

produces blood cells and future sex cells

Front 278

amniotic cavity

Back 278

1 of 2 inner cell mass cavities

the cavity in which the embryo floats.
fluid is prod'd from fetal urine, secretions from the skin, respiratory tract, and amniotic membr's.

Front 279

embryonic disc

Back 279

in b/t the yolk sac and amniotic cavity.
gives rise to 3 primary germ layers: endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm

Front 280

gestation period

Back 280

divided into 3 trimesters
by day 35 the heart is beating and eye and limb buds are present.
placenta is functioning by end of third month.

Front 281

first trimester of gestation period

Back 281

individual begins as a zygote, then morula, blastocyst, and after implantation is an embryo.
embryonic phase of development lasts from fertilization to 8th wk of gestation, when it becomes a fetus.

Front 282

the placenta

Back 282

the chorion develops into the fetal part of the placenta.
the chorionic villi connect the fetal circulation to the placenta.
composed of both fetal and maternal tissue

Front 283

functions of the placenta

Back 283

transfer gases
transport nutrients
excretion of wastes
hormone production - a temporary endocrine organ - estrogen and progesterone
formation of an incomplete, selective barrier - alcohol, steroids, narcotics, anasthetics, some antibiotic and some organisms can cross.

Front 284

effects of pregnancy on the mother

Back 284

reprod. organs become incr. vascular (chadwick's sign)
incr. levels of estrogen and progesterone can cause nausea and vomiting.
human placental lactogen prepares breast for lactation
glucose-sparing effect.
human chorionic thyrotropin incr. maternal metabolism.
parathyroid hormone and vit. D levels incr., incr. intake of calcium.
B.V. incr. 25-40%

Front 285

quickening

Back 285

first movement of the fetus felt by the mother.
usually during 4th or 5th mo of preg.
during last mo, fetus becomes less active, probably due to lack of space.

Front 286

intermittent, painless contractions the uterus undergoes coming a/b 10-20 minutes apart:

Back 286

Braxton-Hicks contractions

Front 287

Braxton-Hicks contractions

Back 287

intermittent, painless contractions the uterus undergoes coming a/b 10-20 minutes apart
b/c more frequent as gestiation progresses and can be mistaken for onset of labor.
cervix begins to thin and dilate.

Front 288

rising levels of fetal cortisol cause what?

Back 288

placenta to release estrogen.

Front 289

what triggers the inflammatory response in the cervix?

Back 289

surfactant protein A

Front 290

near labor, estrogen stimulates what?

Back 290

myometrial cells to form oxytocin receptors
antagonizes quieting effect of progesterone
fetal cells prod oxytocin and placenta prod progesterone

Front 291

parturition

Back 291

labor

Front 292

labor - stage 1

Back 292

the period from the onset of true labor contractions until the cervix is completely dilated at 10 cm.
The uterine contractions cause the cervix to dilate, and the amniotic sac may rupture.
Usually lasts 6 – 24 hours depending on the number of previous deliveries.

Front 293

labor - stage 2

Back 293

period from maximal cervical dilation until birth of baby.
contractions b/c more frequent and intense.

Front 294

labor - stage 3

Back 294

The expulsion of the placenta.
Usually occurs within 15 minutes after the birth of the baby, but can range from 5 to 60 minutes.

Front 295

birth process mechanism

Back 295

fetal head is forces toward cervix.
cervix is stretched.
stretch receptors are stimulated.
reflex is elicited that causes stronger uterine contractions.
fetus is moved downward.

Front 296

ICF composes what percent of total water volume?

Back 296

63%

Front 297

ECF composes what % total water volume?
Of this, how much is interstitial and plasma?

Back 297

37%, a/b 1/3
interstitial fluid - 80% of ECF
blood plasma - 20% of ECF

Front 298

the pressure of fluids is:

Back 298

hydrostatic pressure

Front 299

the avg. adult takes in a/b how much water/day?

Back 299

2500mL/day

Front 300

what keeps us from taking in too much water?

Back 300

wetting of the mouth and stretching of the stomach or intestines decreases thirst.

Front 301

what effect does water absorbtion have on blood osmotic pressure?

Back 301

decrease

Front 302

regulation of water output

Back 302

Through regulating urine formation
ADH – production stimulated by ↑ blood tonicity of decrease in volume.
Acts on distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of kidney – permits reabsorption of water
Aldosterone – production is stimulated by angiotensin II through renin production
Causes sodium ( and water) to be reabsorbed
ANP – causes sodium (and water) loss when pressure in right atrium is too high

Front 303

water imbalance

Back 303

Dehydration is the imbalance seen most often.
Prolonged diarrhea or vomiting
Excessive sweating

Front 304

hypotonic hydration

Back 304

also water toxicity

If lose water by sweating, we also lose sodium.
Rapidly drinking large quantities of water decreases plasma sodium concentration initially, then see decrease in ISF as well.
Water is drawn into cells
This increases ISF tonicity, and water is drawn from blood
Add salt when replacing fluids like this!

Front 305

overhydration

Back 305

Can occur if I.V. fluids are given too rapidly or in too large amounts.
Extra fluid puts strain on heart

Front 306

a decrease in blood proteins can be caused by:

Back 306

Dietary deficiency in proteins
Liver failure
Blockage of lymphatic system
Increased capillary permeability
-Burns, infection

Front 307

water movement back into capillaries depends on:

Back 307

concentration of plasma proteins

Front 308

edema

Back 308

large amounts of fluid in intercellular spaces

Front 309

of the 3 main fluid compartments (IVF, ICF, ISF) which varies the most?

Back 309

interstitial fluid (ISF)

Front 310

edema can be caused by:

Back 310

Decrease in plasma proteins
Retention of electrolytes, esp. Na+
Increase in capillary blood pressure

Front 311

electrolyte balance

Back 311

Cations – positively charged ions
Anions – negatively charged ions
Body fluids also contain charged organic molecules
Only a small percentage of molecules in fluids are non-electrolytes: glucose, urea, creatinine

Front 312

functions of electrolytes

Back 312

Certain ions control the osmosis of water between body compartments
Ions help maintain the acid-base balance necessary for cellular activity
Ions carry electric current, which allows for action potentials and secretion of neurotransmitters
Several ions are cofactors needed for the optimal activity of enzymes

Front 313

sources of electrolyte intake

Back 313

Food and water
Produced by metabolism
Salt craving

Front 314

sources of electrolyte loss

Back 314

Sweat
Feces
Urine

Front 315

osmolarity

Back 315

The total concentration of dissolved particles determines osmolarity.
Glucose – one dissolved particle
NaCl – dissolves into two particles
One mole of NaCl = 2 osmoles
Osmoles/L = osmolarity of solution

Front 316

sodium (Na+)

Back 316

90 % of extracellular cations and half the osmolarity of extracellular solutions
Necessary for action potentials in nerve & muscle cells
Aldosterone increases reabsorption from DCT and collecting ducts
↓ blood volume, ↓ extracellular Na+ ,↑ extracellular K+
ANP causes loss of Na+

Front 317

potassium (K+)

Back 317

Most numerous intracellular cation
Membrane potential and repolarization
Controlled by aldosterone – causes loss of K+ in urine

Front 318

calcium (Ca++)

Back 318

Part of bone, most abundant mineral in body. 98% of Ca is in bone
Extracellular cation
Needed for blood clotting, nerve and muscle function
PTH causes reabsorption of bone and increases reabsorption from G.I tract and glomerular filtrate
Calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts and stimulates osteoblast, so calcium is removed from blood

Front 319

chloride (Cl-)

Back 319

Most common extracellular anions
Cl- diffuses easily between compartments – can help balance charges (RBC’s)
Parietal cells in stomach secrete Cl- & H+
Aldosterone indirectly adjusts Cl- when it increases the reabsorption of Na+ - Cl- follows the Na+

Front 320

bicarbonate (HCO3-)

Back 320

Part of the body’s chief buffer and transports CO2 in blood stream.
CO2 + H2O ↔H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3-
The kidneys are the main regulators of bicarbonate: they form bicarb when levels are low and excrete it when levels are high.

Front 321

phosphate (PO4)

Back 321

Like calcium, most of the phosphate is found in the bones.
15% is ionized
Found in combination with lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids and ATP.
Three different forms
Part of the phosphate buffer system
PTH causes phosphate to be released from bones and to be excreted by the kidneys. Calcitonin removes phosphate by encouraging bone formation.

Front 322

acid-base balance

Back 322

pH – negative log of H+ concentration
Affects functioning of proteins (enzymes)
Can affect concentrations of other ions
Modify hormone actions (proteins)

Front 323

acid intake

Back 323

foods
cellular metabolism

Front 324

strenghts of acids and bases

Back 324

Acids and bases that ionize (break apart) completely are strong acids and bases. (HCl; NaOH)
Acids and bases that do not completely dissociate in solution are weak acids and bases. (lactic acid, carbonic acid)
Remember, blood needs to stay between 7.35 and 7.45 for the body to function properly.
Since more acids than bases are formed, pH balance is mainly a matter of controlling excess H+.

Front 325

control of acid-base balance

Back 325

Buffer systems
Exhalation of carbon dioxide
Kidney excretion

Front 326

buffers

Back 326

Are pairs of chemical substances that prevent a sharp change in the pH of a solution.
Buffers exchange strong acids for weaker acids that do not release as much H+ and thus change the pH less

Front 327

bicarbonate buffer system

Back 327

NaHCO3 + H2CO3
sodium bicarbonate carbonic acid

Addition of a strong acid:

HCl + NaHCO3 → H2CO3 + NaCl
Carbonic acid does not dissociate completely, and pH is changed much less.
Addition of a strong base:
NaOH + H2CO3 → NaHCO3 + H2O

Water dissociates very little, and pH remains nearly the same.

Front 328

bicarbonate ion:carbonic acid buffer

Back 328

Usually the body is called upon to buffer weaker organic acids, such as lactic acid.
Carbonic acid is formed, and amount of bicarbonate ion decreases.
Blood needs to maintain a 20:1 ratio of bicarbonate ion : carbonic acid.
H+ concentration increases slightly
pH drops slightly

Front 329

carbonic acid

Back 329

Carbonic acid is the most abundant acid in the body because it is constantly being formed by buffering fixed acids and by:

H2O + CO2 ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3-

Front 330

phosphate buffer system

Back 330

Is present in extracellular and intracellular fluids, most important in intracellular fluids and renal tubules.
H+ + HPO42- → H2PO4-
monohydrogen dihydrogen
phosphate phosphate
OH- + H2PO4- → H2O + HPO42-

Front 331

protein buffer system

Back 331

The most abundant in body cells and plasma.
Carboxyl group -COOH ↔ -COO- + H+

Amino group –NH2 ↔ -NH3+

Amphoteric molecules
Hemoglobin also acts as a buffer

Front 332

respiratory mechanisms - exhalation of CO2

Back 332

Because carbonic acid can be eliminated by breathing out CO2 it is called a volatile acid.
Body pH can be adjusted this way in about 1-3 minutes
pH also affects breathing rate
Powerful eliminator of acid, but can only deal with carbonic acid.

Front 333

kidney excretion of H+

Back 333

Metabolic reactions produce large amounts of fixed acids.
Kidneys can eliminate larger amounts of acids than the lungs
Can also excrete bases
Can excrete acids while conserving bicarbonate ion
Can produce more bicarbonate ion
Kidneys are the most effective regulators of pH; if kidneys fail, pH balance fails

Front 334

acid/base regulators work at different rates. which works the fastest, slowest?

Back 334

Buffers are the first line of defense because they work almost instantaneously.
Secondary defenses take longer to work:
Respiratory mechanisms take several minutes to hours
Renal mechanisms may take several days

Front 335

pH imbalances

Back 335

The normal blood pH range is 7.35 – 7.45
Any pH below this range is considered to be a condition of acidosis
Any pH above this range is considered to be a condition of alkalosis
The body response to acid-base imbalance is called compensation: Compensation may be complete if the blood pH is brought back to normal, or partial if it is still outside the norms.

Front 336

compensation

Back 336

The body response to acid-base imbalance is called compensation: Compensation may be complete if the blood pH is brought back to normal, or partial if it is still outside the norms.

Front 337

respiratory problems

Back 337

Respiratory acidosis is a carbonic acid excess (blood CO2 is too high)
Respiratory alkalosis is a carbonic acid deficit (blood CO2 is too low)
Compensation would occur through the kidneys

Front 338

metabolic problems

Back 338

Metabolic acidosis is a bicarbonate deficit
Metabolic alkalosis is a bicarbonate excess
Compensation would occur through changes in the depth and rate of respiration.