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130 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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mutation
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-Has a random effect
-Optimal population size so that mutation can get stuck is very large] -Increase variability within population initially in a small way -Increases differences between population initially in a small way |
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Migration/gene flow, FORCE
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-the movement of genes across -population (e.g people from furnald mating with people in John Jay)
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Migration/gene flow
Effect Optimal size Effect within population Effect btwn population |
-effect is systematic because if some mate w/ adjacent populations then others will to
-Smaller the poulation is the more it will be affected by a migration of new people -increases variability within population -decreases differences btwn population |
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Genetic drift, sampling error
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-If the sample size is too small won't get accurate percentages
-Effect is random -optimal pop size is small -Variability within population decreases -Variability btwn population increases |
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Genetic drift, bottlneck
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-Constiriction in population
-example: natural disaster strikes. there were 100 ppl before typhoon, out of 100 5 ppl are gray scale color blind, typhoon comes and 10 ppl survive and 5 of them are color blind |
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Genetic drift- founder effect
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-A founding population is not necessarily representative of its native population
-Example: pilgrims coming to the USA do not accurately rep. population variability of Europe population -Reduces variability initially |
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Natural selection
Effect Optimal Size Effect within and between population |
-Genetic changes within a population due to environmental pressures
-Regional and timely -Effect is systematic -Acts best on large populations -Decreases variability within population, and increases differences between populations |
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Natural selection- Normalizing/stabilizing
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Selection for the mean (babies that are 6-9lbs are favored)
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Natural selection-Directional
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Environment changes and favors one end of the population
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Natural selection--diversifying
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Both ends of population are favored over the middle
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microevolution
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changes within a species that are small and short term
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macroevolution
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change above the level of the species, large scale changes
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modern synthesis
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evolution is due to the accumulation of small genetic changes guided by natural selection
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Evolution has four charachteristics, what are they?
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Evolution is non-directional
-not progressive -irreversible -opportunistic |
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Biological species concept
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a group of organisms that is reproductively isolated from other organisms, and have the ability to reproduce fertile offspring
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Reproductive isolation
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in order to create a new species you need to form a barrier to reproducing fertile offspring
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Allopatric speciation
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Geographic barrier
example: start with happy population and then river runs through it. natural selection may act on pop. of one side of the river in one way and a completely different way on the other side (hence natural selection is regional and timely) |
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Parapatric speciation
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No geographic barrier but a population with low mobility, and low dispersal
Example: naked molerats in israel aren't big dispersers, so mutations and variations are emphasized (genetic drift) |
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sympatric speciation
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no geographic barrier
certain insects can only breed on certain hosts -Example: insects only like to breed on golden retrievers then one offspring has a genetic mutation and insect can only breed a great dane, now this insect is totally isolated from parents and otehr species |
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Premating Reproductive isolating mechanisms (RIMS)- Habitat
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Where you occupy your habitat, tops vs. bottom of tree
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Premating RIMs-Seasonal
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Population is really interested in having sex during the winter, others like to mate when basking in the sun
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Premating RIMs--Behavioral
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Toe-tapping spiders and female toe-tapping spiders
Head bobbing lizards Need right behavior |
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Premating RIMs--Mechanical
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Sex just doesn't work out, not fertile
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4 Premating RIMs
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1. Habitat
2. Seasonal 3. Behavioral 4. Mechanical |
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Postmating RIMs (4)
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1. Gametic mortality
2. Zygote mortality 3. Hybrid invariability 4. Hybrid sterility-partial or complete |
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Postmating RIMs- Gametic mortality
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Sperm and egg die before they can fuse
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Postmating RIMs--Zygote mortality
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after sperm and eggs fuse it dies
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Postmating RIMs--hybrid invariability
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offspring dies after birth
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Postmating RIMs--hybrid sterility (partial or complete)
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Offspring is born sterile, e.g. mules
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Patterns-Adaptive radiation
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repeated diversification of speciation. Depends on your adaptive potential and opportunity
(Dinosaurs become extinct thus allowing small mammals freedom to go into the trees and into the water. Flexible species so give the opportunity, it went everywhere) |
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Patterns--divergent evolution
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Taking different paths
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Patterns-Convergent evolution
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Ancestors in the distant past evolve to resemble each other to to adaptation to similar environments and/or function
(sharks and dolphins) |
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Patterns of evolution-parallel evolution
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Ancestors in the recent past evolve to resemble each other more than the common ancestor
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Homologous traits
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resemblances due to common ancestry.
Example: Frogs, lizards, birds and humans all have carpels |
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analogous traits
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adaptations to similar environment and/or functions
Ex. butterflies and birds both have wings, similar adaptations |
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Tempo and mode of evolutionary change-traditional view, ANGENESIS
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-Little bits of uniform change.
-Arbitrary division btwn species -no splitting -Overall pattern is phyletic gradualism |
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CLADOGENESIS- tempo and mode of evolutionary change
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-Discrete beginnings and endings with clear splitting. These divisions are NOT arbitrary
-Overall pattern is punctuated equilibria -Stasis is key to evolutionary change and stasis lasts longer for different kinds of species |
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taxonomy
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the theory and the practice of classification and how you should do it
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classification
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the process of ordering things into groups
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systematics
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the scientific study of the kinds of diversity in organisms and of any and all relationships among them
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Evolutionary orthodox taxonomy
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Phylogenetic- ancesteral descendant relationships. Putting shared ancestors closer together according to homologus character complexes
-weighted traits + genealogy= genealogy plus -phylograms: diagrams used to express these relationships |
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phenetic/numerical taxonomy
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grouped by overall similarity, not by evolutionary relationships
-no eighting of traits -diagrams are called phenograms |
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cladistic/phylogenetic taxonomy (most common)
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PURE GENEALOGY
- focus on shared, derived traits through relationships (parents, grandparents) |
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apomorphy
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derived traits
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plesiomorphy
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ancesteral traits
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Synapomorphy
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shared derived traits, the focus of cladistics
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symplesiomorphy
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shared primitive traits
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primate evolutionary trends--limbs and locomotion
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-preserve generalized ancesteral traits, keep five fingers and five toes and retain clavical for flexibility in trees
- retained opposable toe and thumb, gives them a power grip and a precsion grip -replace claws with nails which have sensitive pads (feel way across branch) -use hands as tools to explore -tendency to erect upper body, waist up |
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primate evolutionary trends- dentition and diet
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Preservation of ancestral generalized teeth
trend to tooth loss from ancestral form -change in the flextion of the skull that increases chewing force |
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primate evolutionary trends- brain and senses
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-decreased reliance on smell, increased reliance on vision, decreased snout
-eyes begin to move forward on the face (overlapping fields of vision...depth perception allowing them to recognize how far away a branch is) -color vision (helps to distinguish what is a good fruit) -postorbital bar -closure of the eye orbit -increase in the relative brain size related to higher learning |
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primate evolutionary trends-- REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOOPMENT
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slowing down of the life cycle allowing an increase in learning (highly flexible learned behavior)
-increased gestation time -tendency to single births -increased infant dependency -increased life span (longer infancy, childhood, gestation) all of this allowing primates to learn |
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postorbital bar
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Gives incredible protection to the eye. Many mammals have their eyes out there, but with this little ring of bone, we are SO protected
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petrosal bulla
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Middle ear bones are protected in a bulla, a boney encasement
-our boney encasement is made from the temporal bone (a share derived trait) |
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Visual predation hypothesis
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Matt cartmill
-Primates are visual predators of insects on the uneven forest floor -They need an opposable thumb because the forest floor is not clean or even -Primates began in the floor and then moved up into the trees |
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Primate Taxonomy--strepsirhini
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Wet noses
-Lemur -Loris |
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Name 3 categories of anesthesia drugs used to perform R.S.I.?
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1. Anesthetics
2. Sedatives/Hypnotics 3. Neuromuscular Blocking Agents (NMBA) |
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Primate Taxonomy--Platerhini
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-Monkeys apes and humans, all haplorhini are broken up into platerhini and caterhini
-Platerhini are new world forms, they have FLAT noses |
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Primate Taxonomy--Caterhini
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-Monkeys apes and humans, all haplorhini are broken up into platerhini and caterhini
-Caterhini are OLD WORLD forms and have a narrow nose |
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Primate Taxonomy--Ceboidea
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New world monkeys
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Primate Taxonomy--Cercopithecoidea
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Old World monkeys
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Primate Taxonomy--Hominoidea
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Old World APES
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the mamalian referent
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for identifying specific teeth--we look to the mamalian referent to see who we have a tendency to lose teeth from
I I C P P M M M 2. 1. 2. 3 |
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Broad categories of teeth use--Anterior (front I. C.)
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Concerned with ingestion, getting food into a small enough size to chew
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Broad categories of teeth use- posterior (back P. M.)
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Processing your food into digestible pieces, also good for fighting, threatening and grooming
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Primate feeding profiles-- RANGE
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Primates can eat everything, they are omnivores
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Primate Feeding profiles--PROFILE
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Profile is the kind of food that makes up most of its diet, the main foods it eats including the foods that they fall back on when there favorite foods aren't evailable
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Primate profiles--insectivores/faunivores, tarsiers
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-Eat small invertebrates such as grasshoppers
-Sharp pointy teeth, pointy molar cusps, to break into exoskeleton |
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Primate Profiles- Folivores, gorillas
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-Eat leaves
-Narrow incisors and high SHEARING crests on molar cusps -thin molar enamels because they want to make sharp and clean cuts |
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Primate Profiles- Frugivores
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Eat fruit
Broad incisors, low rounded molar cusps |
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Distinguishing human dentition--5 traits
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1) Humans lose c/p3 complex
2) Change muscle orientation 3) Change in palate shape 4) Eruption time 5) Enamel thickness |
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C/P3 Complex
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Includes a large canine
Gap btwn I and C called a diastema Worn/honed P3 |
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Change in muscle orientation btwn chimps and Humans
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Chimp is more prognathic and humans less so
chimps have proportionately more muscles for chewing but humans are more efficient -humans have a flatter face |
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Change in palate shape btwn humans and chimps
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Huments aren't worried about looking threatening so they lose the large canine
-Parabolic palate shape for humans whereas the palate shape for chimps are shovel like |
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change in eruption time btwn humans and chimps
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Chimps third molars come up at 12, humans third molars come up at age 18
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change in enamel thickness btwn humans and chimps
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Chimps have thin molar enamel
-humans have thick molar enamel because their ancestors were hard object feeders |
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frugavores- Hard object feeders
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Maintains broad Incisors
large flat molar cusps like a mortar grinder grinding away need thick molar enamel in order to protect teeth from being ground down |
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Brain size-sealed sized/allometry
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-When we grow our body parts grow at different rates
-as body size increases, our brain size doesn't necessarily increase |
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Brain size- encephalization
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amount of brain tissue beyond that which would be expected of other primates. We have 3.5 times the size of a brain that a chimp has of an equivalently sized chimp
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sulci
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grooves
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gyri
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convolutions
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occipital lobe
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vision
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parietal lobe
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associations, seeing an object and recognizing that you've seen it before
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Organizational changes of the brain 1
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Increase reliance on vision decrease reliance on smell
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Organizational changes of the brain 2
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-Increase in complexity (more folds, more surface area)
-more surface area means more neurons and more connections -Increase in complexity meaning that we have more associational areas giving us more places to store memory. More memory allows more behavioral possibilities |
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Distinguishing human brains-live comparisons
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1) encephalized brain (relative size)
2) Increased frontal lobe size in human brains 3) Position of the lunate sulcus, which separates vision part of brain to the rest--in humans the position is more posterior, meaning that less of the brain is being spent on vision in humans. thus, proportionately humans have more space to have an increased complexity |
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Distinguishing human brains- using fossil records
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an endo-cast
-a cast of inside of the skull. Inside of skull acts like silly putty and whenever the brain hits the skull it makes imprints |
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natural selection and locomotion
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natural selection is opportunistic, thus it works on what's available and it builds upon the plan that was established by earlier ancestors
-gives you layers upon layers of adaptability to what you once had |
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primate locomotor profiles--arboreal quadruped
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Chills in trees on all four feet
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primate locomotor profiles--Terrestrial quadruped
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Moving on all fours on the ground
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primate locomotor profiles--Vertical clinger and leaper
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Tarsier. Hangs vertically and leaps from branch to branch
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primate locomotor profiles--semi-brachiator
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Running on top of trees, swinging on LOWER branches
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primate locomotor profiles--brachiators (highly specialized)
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Cannot run on top of branches, can only swing below the branches
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primate locomotor profiles--Quadrumanual and fist walker
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when they come to the ground they walk on their fists
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primate locomotor profiles--knuckle walking and climbing
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Walk on knuckles and climb trees, such as gorillas
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primate locomotor profiles--Habitual bipedalism
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humans
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8 primate locomotor profiles
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1) arboreal quadruped
2) terrestrial quadruped 3) vertcial clinger and leaper 4) Semi-brachiator 5) Brachiators 6) Quadrumanual and fist walker 7) Knuckle walking and climbing 8) habitual bipedalism |
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morphotype
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not a real creature, but our best guess at what a common ancestor might look like with primitive traits and derived traits
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intermembral index
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arm length/leg length
short hand way of showing which limb is more useful, used more |
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anatomical correlates to locomotor profiles--tarsier
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Vertical clinger and leaper
-long ankle bone -long tail (uses it as a rudder for balance) |
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anatomical correlates to locomotor profiles--Arboreal quadruped
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-long tail for balance
-palmigrade digits for grasping with palms |
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anatomical correlates to locomotor profiles--terrestrial quadruped
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-reduced tail because not in trees as much and will trip over a long tail
- shorter digits because not grasping as much |
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anatomical correlates to locomotor profiles--semi-brachiator
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- strong rotary muscles
- long fingers |
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anatomical correlates to locomotor profiles--suspensory primate-brachiator
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-much longer arms than legs
- scapula moves to the back freeing the arm to move any way you want to |
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Distinguishing human habitual bipedalism-- 11 traits
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1. position of foramen magnum
2. limb porportions- (longer legs, shorter arms) 3. S-Shaped spine 4. Barrel shaped rib-cage 5. Pelvis is broader, shorter, and curved 6. Muscles change orientation 7. Angle of femur 8. Femur has a shorter neck, larger head 9. Angle of medial condyle of femur 10. Ankle bone is larger 11. Foot has an arch, non-opposable big toe |
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Distinguishing human habitual bipedalism--Position of foramen magnum
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For humans this is located in the center of the skull but for the gorilla it is farther back
you can recognize a bipedal skeleton based on skull |
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Distinguishing human habitual bipedalism--Limb proportions-longer legs, shorter arms
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Relatively shorter arms and longer legs
Propulsing with legs not with arms (propulsing meaning we are pushing ourselves forward with our legs not arms) |
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Distinguishing human habitual bipedalism--S-shaped spine
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vertical column in humans has an S curve in order to get weight from upper body to lower body
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Distinguishing human habitual bipedalism--Barrel shaped rib cage
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As opposed to a funnel shaped ribcage found in apes
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Distinguishing human habitual bipedalism--Pelvis is broader, shorter and curved
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Apes are narrower from side to side, longer from top to bottom, and flatter all around due to muscle orientation
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Distinguishing human habitual bipedalism--Muscles change orientation
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Humans the muscles of the femur move to the side but for, the gorilla they remain all on the back pushing him forward
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Distinguishing human habitual bipedalism--Angle of femur
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Chimp has a femur that drops down straight
Humans have a femur that angles in whcih allows us to stand and lock our legs in extension (what allows us to stand for hours) |
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Distinguishing human habitual bipedalism--Femur has a shorter neck, larger head
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This allows the body to carry more weight
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Distinguishing human habitual bipedalism--angle of medial condyle of femur
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In humans the medial condyle is larger than the lateral condyle
-having a slightly larger medial condyle allows you to lock your legs because it breaks the angle so the tibia can drop down straight |
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Distinguishing human habitual bipedalism--ankle bone is larger
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A whole lot of weight coming down on two limbs instead of four, the ankle bone needs to be longer
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Distinguishing human habitual bipedalism--foot has an arch, non-opposable big toe and shorter toes
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-An arch provides a shock absorption
-a non-opposable big toe (non-divergant) allows a toe-off, pushing off with the big toe. If your toe was divergent you can't do a good toe off |
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sexual diamorphism
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differences in physical appearance btwn males and females
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types of primate social organization-solitary/noyau/dispersed polygynoy
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one male multiple female spouses with young
females live alone separated from other female spouces with a male stopping by on occasion Low sexual diamorphism because they are quiet and keep to themselves |
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types of primate social organization-Territorial pairs
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-Male and female live together with offspring
-Low sexual diamorphism because both male and female are involved in defense (gibbons and their duets) |
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types of primate social organization-Multiple males and multiple females
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-Multiple males and multiple females live together with their offspring
-heirarchical; individuals are ranked and will fight and threaten each other to move up in rank -Occur in environments that are rich in food -High sexual diamorphism because they are competing even within the group |
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types of primate social organization-one male group
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-female cluster with offspring and one male
-separate cluster of male bachelors -High sexual dimorphism as all the men want the women |
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types of primate social organization-one male group in a troop
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-One male with two females form a secondary group that they stick to during the day, but at night, these clusters join up with others to form a troop
- High sexual dimorphism because the men compete by day for women and then at night protect against predators |
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types of primate social organization-Polyandrous
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-two males one female and offspring
-Males are not competing with other males, but rather helping the female raise the child so that others will want their offspring -low sexual dimorphism |
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types of primate social organization-fission/fusion
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-Lots of food, nest together at night, by day women are with the babies and men patrol
-moderate sexual dimorphism |
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gene pool
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all the genes in a population, total compliment of genes
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population
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a group of same species that will interbreed and produce fertile offspring
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genotype frequencies
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-percentage
-sum of each genotype (RR, Rr) as a percentage of the total population of genotypes for that trait |
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alleles
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varying forms of a trait
(e.g. for seed color there is an allele for yellow and an allele for green) |
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phenotype
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what a genotype looks like (e.g. a pea can be round or wrinkled)
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allele frequency
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Frequency of a given allele in a population out of the total population of each trait
-again a percentage |
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The Hardy-Weinberg (HW) Formula for Population Equilibrium
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Three assumptions
1) no evolutionary forces at work 2) random mating 3) large enough population Trying to find what is possibility of every allele combining with every allele p= frequency of dominant allele q= frequency of recessive allele p^2 +2pq + q^2=1 in equilibrium if the observed and predicted are very similar |
