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251 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Direct Obesrvation |
- A behavioral measure - The scientist directly observes the behavior being studied. |
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Eye Tracking |
- A behavioral measure. - A device measures the participant's point of gaze over time. |
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Self Report |
- Most common method for measuring sexuality. - Participants are asked questions about sexual behavior. |
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Behavioral Measures of Sex |
- Several alternate ways of measurement. - Includes eye tracking and direct observation. - Focus is to measure behavior such as observing police reports. |
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Measuring Sex |
- Self Report - Behavioral Measures - Implicit Measures - Biological Measures |
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Implicit Measures of Sex |
- Measures associations in reaction time because a reaction cannot be faked. - Uses the IAT (Implicit Association Test).
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IAT |
- Implicit Association Test. - Measures implicit reactions using associations. |
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Biological Measures of Sex |
- Masters and Johnson (1966) first pioneered biological measurement of sexual response. - Includes genital measures |
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Genital Measures |
- Penile Plethysmography: A flexible loop placed around the penis to measure changes in volume. - Vaginal Photoplethysmograph: Used to optically measure vaginal blood flow. - MRI and fMRI: Used to look at anatomy of genitals or measure brain activity. (Magnetic resonance imagining & functional MRI). - Pupil Dilation: Measures the dilataion of the pupils in reaction to things of interest or arousal. |
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Penile Plethysmography |
- Flexible loop placed around the penis to measure changes in volume. |
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Vaginal Photoplethysmograph. |
- A device used to optically measure blood flow to the vagina. |
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Issues in Sex Research |
- Sampling - Accuracy of Measurement - Extraneous Factors - Ethical Issues |
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Sampling |
- Uses sample of a population to adopt a general representative idea of a topic. |
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Three Phases of Sampling |
1. Identifying a population. 2. Method of obtaining a sample is adopted. 3. People in the sample are contacted and asked to participate. |
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Issue in Sampling |
- The Problem of Refusal and Nonresponse occurs when any of the participants refuse to participate. - This leads to Volunteer Bias since researcher is now essentially studying only the people who agreed to participate in the research. - This problem would not be so great if those who refused to participate had identical sexual behavior. - Another problem is that there is no ethical way to force people to participate against their will. |
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Population |
- A group of people a researcher wants to study and make inferences about. |
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Sample |
- A part of a population. |
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Random Sample |
- An excellent method of sampling, in which each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. |
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Probability Samplling |
- An excellent method of sampling in research, in which each member of the population has a known probability of being included in the sample. |
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Problem of Refusal or Nonresponse |
- The problem that some people will refuse to participate in a sex survey, thus making it difficult to study a random sample. |
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Volunteer Bias |
- A bias in the result of sex surveys that arises when some people refuse to participate, so that those who are in the sample, are volunteers who may in some ways differ from those who refuse to participate. |
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Convenience Sample |
- A sample chosen in a haphazard manner relative to the population of interest. - Not a random or probability sample. |
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Accuracy of Masurement |
- Purposeful distortion - Memory - Difficulty in estimation - Evidence in reliability of self reports - Accuracy of behavioral observations |
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Purposeful Distortion in Data Collecting |
- Purposely giving false information in a survey. - Data can be exaggerated (enlarged or concealed). - To minimize purposeful distortion of data, participants should be: 1. Told the study will be for scientific purposes. 2. Assured anonymity. |
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Enlargement in Purposeful Distortion |
- Purposeful exaggeration of sexual activity. |
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Concealment in Purposeful Distortion |
- Purposeful minimizing or concealment of sexual activity. |
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Memory in Data Collecting |
- Is an issue in measurement accuracy is the difficulty of memory. Memory can be distorted over time or become hard to recall. - Alternatives to avoid issues with memory include keeping daily diaries or asking children about current sexual behavior although even this raises ethical and practicality problems. |
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Difficulties with Estimates in Data Collecting |
- Estimation is an issue in the accuracy of measurement. - It is a source of inaccuracy in self report data. |
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Evidence on the Reliability of Self Reports |
- Reliability and accuracy can be distorted purposefully or unintentionally from various factors. - Scientists have developed several methods to assess the reliability and accuracy of self reports such as test-retest reliability and CASI. |
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Test-Retest Reliability |
- A method for testing whether self-reports are reliable or accurate. -Participants are interviewed or given a questionnaire and then interviewed a second time sometime later to determine whether their answers are the same both times. |
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CASI |
- Computer Assisted Self Interview. - A method of data collection in which the respondent fills out questionnaires on a computer. - Headphones and a soundtrack reading the questions can be added for young children or poor readers. |
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Accuracy of Behavioral Observations |
- Direct observation, although generally more accurate compared to self reports, brings the issue of being more expensive, time consuming, with smaller samples studied. - Furthermore, obtaining a probability or random sample is more difficult in survey research requiring requiring things such as direct observation of sexual intercourse in a lab. The participants may not represent the general participation. |
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Extraneous Factors |
- Various extraneous factors may influence the outcomes of a respondent in sex research such as gender, race, or age of interviewer. - Sometimes, careful wording of problems helps eliminate such problems. |
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Ethical Issues |
- Ethical problems are particularly difficult in sex research. - Ethical standards specified by the US Government and university regulations are: 1. Informed consent 2. Protection from harm 3. Justice Principle
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Informed Consent |
- An ethical principle in research, in which people have a right to be informed, before participating, of what they will be asked to do in the research. |
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Justice Principle |
- An ethical principle in research, which holds that the risks of participation should be fairly distributed fairly across groups in society, as should the benefits. |
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Protection From Harm Principle |
- The ethical principle that investigators should minimize physical and psychological stress to people in their research. - Questions regarding sex may be stressful to some participants so the principle of anonymity is important to ensure the participants will not suffer after their participation in the research. |
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Cost-benefit Approach |
- An approach to analyzing the ethics of a research study based on weighing the costs of the research (the participant's time, stress, etc) against the benefits of the research (gaining knowledge about human sexuality). - Answers if the risks outweigh benefits of research. |
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The Kinsey Report: The Sample |
- Interviewed 5300 males in "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male" (1948) and 5940 females in "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female" (1953). - Interviewed people of both white and black races although the interviews of only the white population was published. - Initially not concerned about sampling issues but rather the histories of the individuals. - Began conducting interviews at Indiana University and then to large cities such as Chicago. - Deliberately avoided probability sampling due to issues of nonresponse. - Overrepresented in the sample include: college students, young people, well-educated people, Protestant, people living in big cities, and residents of Indiana and the Northeast. - Underrepresented groups include: manual laborers, less-educated people, older people, Roman Catholics, Jews, racial minorities, and people of rural areas.
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The Kinsey Report: The Interviews |
- 50%+ of the interviews were conducted by Kinsey himself. - His face to face techniques were highly regarded. - He took strict precautions in ensuring that answers remained anonymous; data were stored in IBM cards with a passcode only memorized by select people with contingency plans in destroying data in the event they were being breached by the police. |
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The Kinsey Report: Accuracy |
- The American Statistical Association appointed a blue ribbon pane to evaluate the Kinsey reports and concluded that while the techniques of interview were excellent, they were dismayed by Kinsey's failure to use probability sampling. - The high reports of sexual activity and incidence of homosexual behavior (37%) suggests error in the research. - Since the survey is over 60 years old, they may not be relevant for use today. |
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NHSLS |
- National Health and Social Life Survey (Laumann at al 1994; Michael et al 1994) - A response for the need of a more updated, large-scale, national survey of sexuality. - Headed by Laumann, a distinguished sociologist from the University of Chicago, and conducted by the National Opinion Research Center. - Research method involved probability sampling of households in the US of people aged 18 to 59 and excluded less than 3% of Americans (prisoners, college dormers, and homeless) by sampling through a private envelope of questionnaires. - Obtained a 79% response rate and had a sample of 3432 people. - The statistics did not include American Indians and statistically small minority groups because of the cut in funding. |
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NSSHB |
- Most recent national US sex survey . - National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior. - Data collected in 2009 for people ages 14 to 94 (Hernbenick et al, 2010; Reece et al 2010). - Probability sample based on a combination of random-digit dialing of telephone numbers and sampling of residential addresses from US Postal Service's list of deliverable addresses in the US. - 820 total adolescents in sample obtained by 62% approval of consent by parents. - 9600 adults were contacted with a 53% positive response. - Total sample size of 5965. - 69% white, 14% hispanic, 11% black, and 7% other. - Probability sample was regarded as excellent because of ethnic diversity although total response rate of 50% was lower than NHSLS which means more probability of volunteer bias. |
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NATSAL |
- National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles, survey was a response for need of better information during the AIDS crisis. - Represented sexual behavior in Britain. Led by Anne Johnson (1992, 2001). - Data yielded 18876 men and women aged 16 to 59 living in Wales, England, and Scotland. - Data indicated 14% of men and 7% of women had multiple sex partners in the past year which contrast to the findings of the NHSLS. - 16 to 24 year olds yielded a greater proportion of 27% of men and 16% of women saying they had multiple sex partners in the past year. |
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ASHR |
- Australian Study of Health and Relationships (Rissel et al, 2003a; Rissel et al, 2003b; Smith et al 2003a). Conducted by a team of researchers in Australia using computer assisted phone interviews. - Researchers recruited a sample of 19307 men and women aged 16 to 59. - Response rate was comparable to the NHLS, at 73%. - Research indicated that age of first intercourse had declined over the last several decades, consistent with the US findings. - In the youngest cohort (16-19), 27% of men and 25% of women report that they had their first intercourse before the age of 16. 38% and 27% of women reported that they used no form of contraception during their first intercourse, similar to the US pattern. |
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Survey of African American and Hispanic Youth |
- Conducted in 1997 by Kathleen Ford and Anne Norris of youth aged 15 to 24 in low income areas of Detroit with excellent probability sampling. - Over 95% of the 60 interviewers were themselves an ethnic minority resident of Detroit. - Study focused on the respondent's network of sexual relationships. - Both ethnic groups consisted that majority of their sexual partners were outside their ethnic groups but Latinos were far more likely. - Both ethnic groups were more likely for women to have a partner older than themselves. - Established that language and cultural barriers affect the outcome of the research. |
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Magazine Surveys |
- The sample sizes obtained are huge but are prone to bias because magazines pertain only to a certain population of readers. - Another issue is that response rate is unknown. |
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Snowball Sampling |
- A method for acquiring a sample of people , in which existing participants suggests names of participants suggest names of future participants to be recruited. |
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Studies of Special Populations |
- Project SIGMA conducted in Britain by Tony Coxon to understand gay men during the AIDS era. To combat issue of sampling and accuracy of self reports, he used snowball sampling techniques and used friendlier terminology for references. |
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Web Based Surveys |
- Advantages include recruitment of large samples, broader samples, and anonymity of respondent. - Disadvantages include the lack of researcher's control on the respondent's environment, biases due to availability of internet access, and faked or sabotaged responses. |
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Content Analysis |
- A set of procedures used to make valid inferences about text. |
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Media Content Analysis |
- Uses content analysis to study impacts of media on a population's sexuality. - Procedure includes: 1. Defining the population. 2. Creating a coding protocol (what defines as sex) 3. Compute the correlation or percent agreement of intercoder reliability. |
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Intercoder Reliability |
- In content analysis, the correlation or percent of agreement between two coders independently rating the same texts. |
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Qualitative Research |
- A collection of naturalistic, holistic methods, including participant observation and in-depth interviewing, in which the results are conveyed not in numbers, but in words. - Includes methods such as ethnography and participant-observer techniques. |
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Ethnography |
- A research method used to provide a description of a human society.
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Participant-Observer Technique |
- A research method in which the scientist becomes part of the community to be studied and makes observations from inside the community. |
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Correlational Study |
- A study n which the researcher does not manipulate variables but rather studies naturally occurring relationships (correlations) among variables. |
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Experiment |
- A type of research study in which one variable (independent variable) is manipulated by the experimenter while all other factors are held constant; the researcher then can study the effects of the independent variable on some measured variable (dependent variable); the researcher is permitted to make casual inferences about the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable. |
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Casual Inference |
- Reaching the conclusion that one factor actually causes or influences an outcome. |
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Statistical Concepts: Average |
- Mean: The average of respondent's scores. - Median: The middle score. - Variability: Smaller range per answer choice in a questionnaire for a respondent ensures more accuracy. |
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Incidence |
- The percentage of people giving a particular response. |
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Frequency |
- How often a person does something. |
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Correlation |
- A number that measures the relationship between two variables. |
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Cumulative Incidence |
- The percentage of people who have a certain response for each accumulation of events. - Example: The percent of people who have engaged in a certain activity before a certain age.
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Combination Birth Control Pills |
- Also known as oral contraceptives. - Combines extra dosages of estrogen and progestin. - 21 days on, 7 days off is most common. |
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Combination Birth Control Pills: Variations |
- Variations include: 1. Loestrin: 24 active pills, 7 inactive pills. 2. Seasonale: 84 days combined hormones, 7 days of placebo. 3. QuickStart: Allows user to take from the first day, regardless of the day of menstrual cycle. |
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Combination Birth Control Pills: How it Works |
- Prevents ovulation by inhibiting the pituitary gland from producing FSH with the added levels of estrogen while the high level of progestin inhibits LH production. - Progestin also keeps cervical mucus thick to prevent sperm infiltration and changes lining of uterus to make it unlikely for egg implantation. |
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Combintion Birth Control Pills: Effectiveness |
- One of the most effective methods of birth control. - Perfect User Failure Rate: 0.3% - Typical User Failure Rate: 9% - Failure usually is due to forgetting to take pill for two or more consecutive days. |
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Combination Birth Control Pills: Side Effects |
- Serious side effects are slight to none for most. - Significant increase in vulnerability for users with circulatory related diseases such as blood clots, particularly for women over 35 who smoke. - Causes high blood pressure for some women. - Protects women from endometrial and ovarian cancer but aggravates already existing cancer such as breast cancer. - Increases vaginal discharge, increasing susceptibility to vaginitis. - Increased susceptibility to Chlamydia. - May cause nausea, weight gain, changes in sexual desire, and increased irritability and depression. - Death rate of 1.6 per 100000 opposed to pregnancy: 12 per 100000. |
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Combination Birth Control Pills: Advantages |
- Close to 100% perfect user success rate. - Does not interfere with intercourse. - It is not messy. - Reduces menstrual flow and menstrual cramps. - Iron deficiency amnesia is less likely to occur. - Can clear acne and serve as protection against endometriosis, ovarian cancer, and endometrial cancer. |
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Combination Birth Control Pills: Disadvantages |
- Very costly: $50 a month. - Taking correctly is complicated. - Overkill for women who has intercourse infrequently. - No protection against STD's.
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Combination Birth Control Pills: Reversibility |
- To reverse, the user only needs to simply stop taking the pills after the end of one cycle. - Some women experience a brief 2 or 3 months delay in becoming pregnant after quitting. |
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Combination Birth Control Pills: Drug Interactions |
- Some anti-convulsant drugs as well as antiretroviral drugs used to treat HIV infection decrease effectiveness of the pill. - Can increase the metabolism of some drugs, making them more potent, including antianxiety drugs, corticosteroids, and theophylline. - Some over the counter drugs interact with the pill such as St.Johns Worts. |
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Hormonal Methods of Contraception |
- The Combination Pill - Varieties of Pills - The Vaginal Ring - Emergency Contraception - Implants - Depo-Provera Injections
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Failure Rate |
- The pregnancy rate occurring using a particular contraceptive method. - The percentage of women who will be pregnant after a year of use of the method. - Two types: perfect user failure rate and typical user failure rate. |
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Perfect User Failure Rate |
- The failure rate for users who use contraceptive with the perfect method having been well educated about it and uses it with perfect consistency. |
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Typical User Failure Rate |
- The failure rate for the typical user in the real world. |
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Other Varieties of Pills |
- Progestin-only pills - Triphasic pills - Vary from one brand to the next but because of blood clotting side effects of estrogen, current pills have less estrogen now than in the past such as Ortho-Novum 1/35 which has 1/3 estrogen than the predecessor, Envoid 10. - Most women do well on pills with no more than 20-35 micrograms of estrogen. |
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Triphasic Pills |
- A birth control pill containing a steady level of estrogen and three phases of progesterone, intended to mimic more closely women's natural hormonal cycles. - Example: Ortho Tri-Cyclen |
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Progestin-Only Pills |
- Sometime called minipills. - Contains low levels of progestin and no estrogen to prevent estrogen related side-effects. - User takes one from first day of period and every day afterwards at the same time. - Works by thickening cervical mucus, inhibiting implantation, and ovulation (although 40% of users still ovulate). - Higher typical failure rate than combination pills. - Side effects include production of irregular menstrual cycles and also should not be used first 6 weeks after birth when breast feeding. |
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The Patch |
- Example: Ortho Evra - Same hormones as combination pills but applied through the skin (transdermally). - Consists of outer protective layer of polyester, the adhesive layer with the hormone, and a polyester liner that is removed before use. - Patch lasts 7 days, so every week for 3 weeks a patch is applied with 1 patch-free week. - First time use may take a few days to reach effectiveness. - Concerns are that it may contain higher hormonal levels than combination pill. - Not effective against giant fat women over 200 pounds. - Advantages are that it is easy to use, does not interfere with sex, and does not need to be digested. |
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The Vaginal Ring |
- Flexible transparent ring made of plastic filled with the same hormones of a combination pill but in less doses. - Cycle: placed in the vagina for 3 weeks, off one week. Same typical failure rate as the pill. - Mainly works by stopping ovulation. - Relatively new so not much data on it. - Example: NuvaRing |
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Seasonale |
- A type of combination pill - Allows only 4 menstrual cycles a year. - Safe and FDA approved. - Slightly less amount of estrogen and progestin levels than the other combination pills. - 84 days of pills, 7 days off. |
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Emergency Contraception |
- Available in pill form. - Most effective if begun within 12 to 24 hours and cannot be delayed longer than 5 days. - levonogestrel (a progestin) are in higher doses. - Nausea is a common side effect. - FDA approved over the counter drug. - Post-coital methods "morning after pills". - IUD's can be used as emergency contraception. |
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Emergency Contraception: Effectiveness |
- Highly effective. - 75 - 89% effectiveness during most fertile part of the cycle. - 0.5 - 2% failure at other times.
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Emergency Contraception: Varieties |
- Plan B - Next Choice * Available without prescription and works by preventing ovulation and fertilization while inhibiting the endometrium as well as sperm function. - Ella * Suppresses progesterone to prevent ovulation and thins out the uterine lining. |
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Implants |
- Thin rods or tubes containing progestin. - Implanted under the skin of a woman's arm for 3 years. - The only implant available in the US is Implanon; a single rod 4 cm long and 2 mm wide.
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Implants: How it Works |
- Works like other progestin-only methods. - Suppresses ovulation. - Thickens cervical mucus. - Inhibits the growth of the endometrium.
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Implants: Effectiveness |
- Highly effective. - Typical user failure rate is 0.05%. - No difference in perfect user and typical user failure rates because there is no need for maintenance or complication of use. - There are no negative side effects to date. |
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Implants: Advantages |
- Requires no reliance on memory to use for 3 years. - Does not interfere with intercourse. - Contains no estrogen.
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Implants: Disadvantages |
- A large proportion of women using Implanon reported changes in menstrual bleeding patterns and may include unusually long bleeding, frequent bleeding, and amenorrhea. |
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Implants: Reversibility |
- A clinician must remove the implant to reverse the effect. - In most cases, the cycle returns to normal within 3 months of removal. |
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Depo-Provera Injections |
- DMPA - Progestin administered by injection. - Repeated every 3 months for maximum effectiveness. - Available in the US since 1992. |
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Depo-Provera Injections: How it Works |
- Works like other progestin only methods. - Inhibits ovulation. - Thickens cervical mucus. - Inhibits the growth of the endometrium. |
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Depo-Provera: Effectiveness |
- Highly effective. - Typical user failure rate is 6%, somewhat more effective than the pill. - No lethal side effects were recorded but long term tests are yet to be studied. |
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Depo-Provera: Advantages |
- Does not interfere with intercourse. - Requires less memory than birth control pills. - Available for women who cannot use the combination pill. - Known treatment of endometriosis. - Some users known to experience amenorrhea. - Known to relieve anemia. |
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IUD |
- Intrauterine Device - Also known as IUC (Intrauterine contraceptive). - A plastic device sometimes containing a metal or hormone that is inserted into the uterus for contraceptive purposes. - Basic idea existed since 1909 but did not become popular until the 1950's. |
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IUD: How it Works |
- Inserted by a medical professional. - Has a string that comes out of the vagina to check to see if it is still inside. - The presence of foreign body in the uterus creates a toxic environment for egg and sperm. - Also prevents implantation.
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IUD: Varieties |
- Two Types available in the US: 1. Copper T: Also called ParaGuard. Made of copper, adds a contraceptive effect by altering the functioning of the enzymes involved in implantation. Uteral lining becomes inhospitable. Lasts 10 -12 years. 2. Mirena LNG-IUC: Made of progesterone released directly into uterus, reducing the endometrium, mentrual flow and the risk of anemia. Lasts 5 years. |
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IUD: Side Effects |
- Most common for the Copper T are: 1. Increased menstrual cramps. 2. Irregular bleeding. 3. Increased menstrual flow. * Symptoms occur in 10 - 20% of women using it and are mot likely immediately after insertion. - Most Common for Mirena are: 1. Reduction of menstrual flow. 2. 20% of users stop bleeding altogether.
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IUD: Advantages |
- Cheap over the long term use of 5, 10, or 12 years. - Typical user failure rate is 0.8%. - More effective than combination pills or Depo-Provera injections. - Easy to use and requires no memory. - Doesn't interfere with tampon use, postnatal use, breastfeeding, or sex. |
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IUD: Disadvantages |
- Initial cost is very expensive; $300 for a full paying client at Planned Parenthood plus IUD insertion. |
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IUD: Reversibility |
- A physician removes the IUD. - She then can be pregnant immediately thereafter. |
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The Diaphragm |
- A cap-shaped rubber contraceptive device that fits inside a woman's vagina over the cervix - Contraceptive jelly must also be applied to effectively use it. |
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The Diaphragm: How it Works |
- Contraceptive cream is applied and then pushed in the vagina to block the cervix. It may be inserted up to 6 hours before intercourse ad may be left in there for up to 24 hours; longer than 24 hours may lead to toxic shock syndrome. - It mainly works as a mechanism that blocks sperm from entering the uterus and the contraceptive cream kills off any sperm that manages to get in the barrier. Any remaining sperm will die off within 6 hours after. |
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The Diaphragm: Effectiveness |
- Typical user failure rate is 12% due to improper use and/or expansion of the vagina during sexual arousal. |
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Diaphragm: Advantages |
- It is reusable for up to two years. - It is effective if properly used. - Has very few side effects. - Provides some protection against certain STD's such as Chlamydia. - Reduction in the rate of cervical cancers for longtime users. |
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Diaphragm: Disadvantages |
- It costs $75 for one. - It is uncomfortable and requires preparation. - Spermicide may leak out after intercourse. - Diaphragm may slip during intercourse. |
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FemCap |
- Vaginal barrier device similar to the Diaphragm. - Shaped like a sailor's cap. - Made of silicone. - Comes in 3 sizes. - Only obtainable through a healthcare provider. - Should be used with a spermicide or the new microbicides. |
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The Sponge |
- An over the counter vaginal barrier method made of polurethane shaped like a concave pillow with a woven loop aid on the other side. - Contains spermicide and soaks semen. - Inserted like a diaphragm and is effective for 24 hours. - Comes in one size but has risk of toxic shock syndrome. - Typical failure rate is 12 - 24%. - Perfect failure rate is 9 - 20%. |
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Male Condom |
- Thin contraceptive sheath placed over the penis. - Most ancient form of contraceptive; used over 3000 years. - Made of latex, polyurethane, or sheep intestines. - Protects against many forms of STD's. - Easy to find and cheap. - Perfect user failure rate: 2%. - Typical user failure rate: 18%. - Some people have allergies to certain kinds. |
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Spermicides |
- A substance that kills sperm. - Most contain nonoxynol-9 (N-9). - Works secondarily to block cervix. - Comes in jellies, foams, lubes, creams, gels, and films.
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Spermicides: How it Works |
- Chemically kills sperm. - Mechanically blocks cervix. |
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Spermicide: Effectiveness |
- Some failure rates are as high as 28%. - Foams are more effective while gels and creams are less effective. - Some side effects include allergies for certain people. 2% men and 26% women had experienced allergic reactions. |
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Spermicide: Advantages |
- Readily available without prescription. - Can be used as a stopgap method.
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Spermicide: Disadvantages |
- High failure rates result in the need for use of another form contraceptive such as a condom. - No protection against STD's. - Briefly interrupts spontaneity of sex. |
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Douching |
- Flushing out the inside of the vagina with a liquid. - Very ineffective method of contraception. |
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Withdrawl |
- A method of birth control in which the man withdraws his penis from his partner's vagina before he has orgasm and ejaculates. - Very ineffective and can cause long term psychological damage. - Failure rate of 22%. - Can be used as a sexual expression. - Does not help against precum. |
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Rhythm (Fertility Awareness) Methods |
- A method of birth control that involves abstaining from intercourse around the time the woman ovulates and is the only "natural" birth control. - The only method of contraception accepted in certain religions such as Roman Catholicism. - Includes the Calendar Method, Standard Days Method, Basal Body Temp Method, Ovulation Method, Sympto-Thermal Method, and home ovulation tests. |
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The Calendar Method |
- A type of rhythm method in which the woman determines when she ovulates by keeping a calendar record of of her monthly cycles. - Requires a year's worth of data. - Take 11 days from the shortest cycle and 18 days from the longest cycle and abstain from sex in between. - 5% ideal user failure rate. |
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Basal Body Temperature Method (BBT) |
- A type of rhythm method of birth control in which the woman determines when she ovulates by keeping track of her temperature. - Only tells when it is safe for sex (3 days after ovulation until menstruation). - Temperature must be taken first thing in the morning after waking as the body temperature is lowest then. - 2% ideal user failure rate.
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Standard Days Method (SDM) |
- A simpler variation of the Calendar Method. - Uses the proponent 80% of women have cycle lengths between 28 and 32 days and refrain from day 8 to 19 (12 fertile days). - Perfect user failure rate is 5%. - Typical user failure rate is 12%. |
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Ovulation Method (Cervical Mucus Method) |
- A type of rhythm method of birth control in which the woman determines when she ovulates by checking her cervical mucus. - Requires abstinence from first day of mucus discharge to the fourth day after peak days. - The mucus is cloudy or white is when it is okay for intercourse. - 3% ideal user failure rate. |
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The Sympto-Thermal Method |
- A type of rhythm method of birth control combining the basal body temperature method and cervical mucus method. - 2% ideal user failure rate. |
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Home Ovulation Tests |
- Detects ovulation. - Some designed for people who want to conceive and some for contraception. - Some such as PG53,PC2000, and Maybe Baby uses minimicroscopes to examine saliva or cervical mucus. - Some revolve around BBT and some around hormone levels in urine. - Not tested enough to be counted as reliable and costs range from $50 to $500. |
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Rhythm (Fertility Awareness) Methods: Effectiveness |
- Around 25% typical user failure rate for all methods combined. - Ideal user failure rates vary greatly but are reduced if the woman's cycle is very regular. - Combining with another method of contraceptive greatly improves chance of user success. |
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Rhythm (Fertility Awareness) Methods: Advantages |
- Accepted by certain religions such as the Roman Catholics. - No real damaging side effects. - Cheap to free.
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Rhythm (Fertility Awareness) Methods: Disadvantages |
- High failure rate. - Complicated and stressing. - Requires a lot of data to be acquired. - Requires long periods of abstinence. - A certain amount of time, usually months, is required to collect data. |
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Sterilization |
- A surgical procedure by which an individual is made sterile, that is, incapable of reproducing. - Two types: female and male sterilization. - 40% of married couples have one partner sterilized.
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Vasectomy |
- A surgical procedure for male sterilization involving sewing of the vas deferens. - Includes no-scalpel vasectomy, which is vasectomy where only a tiny incision is necessary. - Men should not confirm to relying on vasectomy until 3 months after surgery and refrain from intercourse for 20 ejaculations after surgery to be safe from stray sperm. |
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Vasectomy: How it Works |
- The vasectomy makes it impossible for sperm to move beyond the cut in the vas, preventing sperm from entering the ejaculate.
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Vasectomy: Effectiveness |
- Essentially 100% effective. - Failure rate of 0.1% caused by stray sperm or the physician did not completely sever the vas. In rare cases the ends of the vas grow back together. - Side effects are minimal including minor complication or infection. Mostly psychological as less than 5% regret having done so. |
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Vasectomy: Reversibility |
- Called vasovasectomy. - Current microsurgery techniques have pregnancy rates following reversal between 38% and 89%. - After vasectomy, some men may develop antibodies to their own sperm. |
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Laparoscopy |
- A method of female sterilization. - A magnifying instrument is inserted into the abdomen to identify the fallopian tubes which are then blocked with clips. - Procedure takes only about 10 - 20 minutes and does not require a night in the hospital. |
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Minilaparotomy |
- A method of female sterilization. - Performed immediately after a woman gives birth. - Simple outpatient surgery performed in 10 - 20 minutes and doesn't require a night in the hospital. |
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Transcervical Apporach |
- A method of female sterilization. - Does not require incision. - Instruments enter through the cervix and uterus and a blockage device is placed in the fallopian tubes where scar tissue forms over them. - Most common devices used for blockage are Essure and Adiana. |
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Female Sterilization: How it Works |
- Makes it impossible for sperm to reach the egg. |
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Female Sterilization: Effectiveness |
- Essentially 100% effective. - Only a 0.5% failure rate from rare occasions where the ends of the fallopian tubes rejoin or if the woman was pregnant prior to the surgery. - Less than 1% experience complications from the surgery. - Side Effects include infections, hemorrhaging, and problems related to the anesthetic. |
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Attitudes Towards Contraception |
- 750,000 teens in the US become pregnant annually. - 57% give live birth. - 29% are terminated by abortion and rest in miscarriage. - 14% of sexually active tens do not use contraception. - 46% of women who aborted did not use contraception. |
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Abortion |
- The termination of pregnancy. |
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Vacuum Aspiration |
- A "surgical" method of abortion that is performed during the first trimester and involves suctioning out the contents of the uterus. - Also called suction curettage. |
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Dilation and Evacuation (D&E) |
- Used for later, second trimester abortions (14 - 24 weeks). - Similar to vacuum aspiraation but requires further dilation of the cervix. |
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Induced Labor |
- Intentional miscarriage done later in the third trimester.
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Hysterotomy |
- Abortion method equivalent of a C-section. |
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Medical Abortion Methods |
- Mifepristone (RU-486): Abortion pill which uses a powerful antiprogesterone effect to expel the embryo. - Methotrexate: Abortion pill for early abortion which is toxic for embryo.
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New Methods in Male Contraception |
- New condoms - Male hormonal methods - Immunocontraceptives |
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New Methods in Female Contraception |
- Microbicides - Vaginal Rings - Spray-on contraception - Injectables - New IUD's - Implantation Inhibition - Reversible, nonsurgical sterilization |
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Stages of the Sexual Response Cycle |
- Excitement - Orgasm - Resolution |
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Vasocongestion |
- An accumulation of blood in the blood vessels of a region in the body, especially the gentials; swelling or erection results. |
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Myotonia |
- Muscle contraction.
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Excitement |
- The first stage of sexual response. - Identified by erection in the male and vaginal lubrication in the female. - Vasodilation occurs because smooth muscles along arteries to genitals relax increasing blood flow. - Nitric Oxide and dopamine are involved neurotransmitter. |
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Orgasmic Platform |
- A tightening of the entrance to the vagina due to contractions of the bulbospongiosus muscle that occur during the excitement stage of sexual response. |
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Ballooning |
- The outer 1/3 of the vagina swells and becomes tighter while the inner 2/3 of the vagina wall expands to accommodate the entry of the penis. |
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Orgasm |
- The second stage of sexual response. - An intense sensation that occurs at the peak of sexual arousal followed by release of sexual tensions. - Women have orgasms later than men but orgasms for both men and women are indistinguishable. |
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Resolution |
- The third stage of sexual response. - The stage where the body resolves back to the unaroused state. - Women take longer than men. - Takes around 15 to 30 minutes to completely resolve.
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Resolution in Women |
- Reduction of swelling of the breasts. - Clitoris becomes smaller 5 to 10 seconds after orgasm. - Orgasmic Platform begins to shrink.
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Detumescence |
- Loss of erection. - Happens in 2 stages. - The first happens rapidly but leaves the penis still enlarged with the emptying of blood from the corpora cavernosa. - Second is the the emptying of the corpus spongiosum and the glans.
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Refractory Period |
- The period following orgasm during which the male cannot be sexually aroused.
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Clitoral Orgasm |
- Freud's term for orgasms in females resulting from the stimulation of the clitoris. - Considered infantile and immature by Freud's terms. - Masters and Johnsons brought a lot of criticism to the terms vaginal and clitoral orgasms. |
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Vaginal Orgasm |
- Freud' term for orgasm in the female reulting from stimulation of the vagina in heterosexual intercourse. - Freud considered this to be more mature but is largely criticized after Masters and Johnson's studies. |
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Multiple Orgasm |
- A series of orgasms occurring within a short period of time. - Masters and Johnsons concluded that women do not enter a refractory period and can have multiple consecutive orgasms. |
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Triphasic Model |
- Kaplan's model of sexual response in which here are 3 components: sexual desire (just arousal), vasocongestion of genitals, and muscular contractions in orgasm. - Erection and vaginal lubrication is controlled by the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. - Two anatomical structures, the blood vessels for vasocongestion and the muscles for contractions for orgasm are involved. - Vasocongestion and orgasm differ in their susceptibility to being disturbed by injury, drugs, or age. - Reflex of ejaculation can be brought under voluntary control in most males but erection cannot. - Vasocongestion and orgasm response associates with different sex disorders. |
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Dual Control Model |
- First proposed by John Bancroft - A model that holds that sexual response is controlled both by sexual excitation and by sexual inhibition. - Excitation: responding with arousal to sexual stimuli. - Inhibition: inhibiting sexual arousal. |
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Emotion and Arousal |
- A major component of criticism to Master and Johnson's studies is that it included all physiological and no psychological aspects. - Ridley's studies show that both negative and positive emotions showed a strong positive association with arousal. |
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Spinal Reflexes in Sex |
- Several important components of sexual behavior such as erection and ejaculation are controlled by simple spinal reflexes. - Reflexes consists of 3 major components: 1. Receptors: Sensory neurons that detect stimuli and transmit messages to spinal cord. 2. Transmitters: Centers in the spinal cord or brain that receive messages, interpret it, and send out a message to produce the appropriate response. 3. Effectors: Neurons or muscles that respond to stimulation. |
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Neural and Hormonal Base of Arousal: Erection |
- Produced by a spinal reflex. - Stimulation is transmitted to the erection center in the sacral or lower part of the spinal cord. |
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Neural and Hormonal Base of Arousal: Ejaculation |
- Two ejaculation centers located higher in the lumbar portion of the spinal cord. - Ejaculation can be controlled voluntarily.
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Retrograde Ejaculation |
- A condition in which orgasm in the male is not accompanied by an external ejaculation; instead, the ejaculate goes into the urinary bladder. |
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Neural and Hormonal Bases of Arousal: Reflexes in Women |
- There is far less research on women. - Study in rats suggest that neural circuits for orgasm in women and males are very similar. - Clitoris and the vagina receives both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers. |
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Grafenberg Spot (G-Spot) |
- A small region on the front wall of the vagina, emptying into the urethra, and responsible for female ejaculation. - Largely debated as is with female ejaculation. - Also called the female prostate or the Skene's gland. - One survey indicated 40% of women ejaculated at the time of orgasm. |
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Limbic System |
- A set of structures in the interior of the brain, including the amygdala, hippocampus, and fornix. - Believed to be important for sexual behavior in both animals and humans. |
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Arousal (Anticipatory) Phase |
- Sexual arousal may be triggered by reflexive processes require tactile stimulation of an erogenous region of the body. - This is part of the limbic system. - Research show that from heterosexual women that brain activity is similar to men during sexual interest.
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Sexual Consummation Phase |
- Includes a variety of activities capable of producing pleasure or euphoria. - Genital stimulation shows a third pattern of brain activity in the dorsal and interhemispheric primary motor cortex.
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Orgasm and the Brain |
- Most prominent area of activity related to orgasm is the decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex. - There is also increased activity in the left orbitofrontal cortex which is associated with subjective ratings of pleasure by the participant. |
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Post-Orgasmic Refractory Period |
- This period is more studied in men because men almost always have an orgasm in response to genital stimulation. - 3 to 30 minutes post-orgasm indicate through fMRI testing that activity was observed in the septal area, temporal lobe, and the amygdala. |
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Neurochemicals in Inhibition |
- Opiods are released in the cortex, limbic system, hypothalamus, and midbrain in response to sexual pleasure, orgasm, and ejaculation. - Endocannabinoids which induces sedation, and counters stress. - Serotonin which induces satiety as well as the refractory period. |
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Organizing Effects |
- Effects of sex hormones early in development, resulting in a permanent change in the brain or reproductive system.
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Activating Effects of Hormones |
- Effects of sex hormones in adulthood, resulting in the activation of behaviors, especially sexual behaviors and aggressive behaviors. |
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Hormone & Sexual Desire |
- Testosterones are primary source of sex drive in males. - Androgens are the primary source of sex drive in females. |
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Physical Castration |
- Also known as bilateral orchiectomy. - Involves surgical removal of the testes.
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Chemical Castration |
- Involves chemical substances such as Depo-Provera injections of progesterone, an anti-androgen drug to sharply decrease the levels of testosterone in the body. |
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Pheromones |
- Biochemicals secreted outside the body that are important in communication between animals that may serve as sex attractants. - Urine of the ovulating female is known to increase testosterone in males. - Fresh sweat is know to increase sexual attraction in females. - Removal of olfactory bulbs, especially the vomeronasal organ, educes sexual behavior of males in certain species of rodents. |
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Menstrual Synchrony |
- The convergence, over several months, of the dates of onset of menstrual periods among women who are in close contact with each other. - Involves pheromones. |
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Erogenous Zones |
- Area of the body that are particularly sensitive to sexual stimulation. |
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Autoeroticism |
- Sexual self stimulation. - Example: masturbation.
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Masturbation |
- Stimulation of one's own genitals with the hand or with some object, such as a sex toy. |
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Sexual Fantasy |
- Sexual thoughts or images that alter the person's emotions or physiological state. |
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Coitus |
- Sexual intercourse involving insertion of the penis into the vagina. |
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Cunnilingus |
- Mouth stimulation of the female genitals. |
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Fellatio |
- Mouth Stimulation of the male genitals. |
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Sixty-Nining |
- Simultaneous mouth-genital stimulation. - Also called Soixante-Neuf. |
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Anal Intercourse |
- Insertion of the penis into the partner' rectum. |
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Anilingus |
- Mouth stimulation of the partner's anus. |
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Interfemoral Intercourse |
- A sexual technique used by gay men in which one man moves his penis in between the thighs of the other. |
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Tribadism |
- A sexual technique used by lesbians in which one woman lies on top of another and moves rhythmically in order to produce sexual pleasure, particularly clitoral simulation. |
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Aphrodisiac |
- A substance (food or drink) that increases sexual desire. - There are no scientifically proved aphrodisiacs. |
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Anaphrodisiac |
- A substance that decreases sexual desire.
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Lifespan Development |
- Development from birth through old age. |
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Attachment |
- A psychological bond that forms between an infant and the mother, father, or the caregiver. - Defined in infancy to preschool stage (0 - 4 years). |
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Self Stimulation in Infancy |
- Infants have been observed fondling their own genitals. - Progressively, infants discover their own genitals unintentionally between 6 to 12 months of age by touching them. - Increase in genital touching occurs 15 to 19 months. - 71% of boys and 43% of girls in a Swedish study are reported to touch their genitals at home and 28% boys and 18% of girls used their hands. - Orgasm at this age is possible but not ejaculation. |
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Child-Child Encounters |
- By age 4 or 5, children become more social and engage in heterosexual play. - Roughly 25% to 50% of children engage in heterosexual play. - This type of behavior is no more than exhibiting or fondling with each others genitals. - Some sexual behavior is learned. |
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Primal Scene |
- Some children learn of sexual behavior by seeing or hearing heterosexual sex from their parents unintentionally. - 20% of middle class parents report that their children had caught them in the act. - Children are reported to have reactions of curiosity, amusement, or embarrassment. - Term described by Sigmund Freud. |
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Sexual Knowledge and Interests |
- In preschool years, children begin to grow more sexually interested and begin to understand some aspects of sexuality. - Children become interested in people that are nude or begin touching their mothers or other women's breasts and in the posture of the opposite sex's urinating position. - Children become more affectionate. - About age 5 to 6, children grow a vague differentiation between sex and understands the concept marriage. |
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Adrenarche |
- In childhood, the maturation of the adrenal glands resulting in increased secretion of androgens. |
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Knowledge of Gender |
- By age 3, children can identify their own gender. - Age 4 to 6, ideas about gender are very rigid.
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Masturbation in Childhood |
- Age 5 to 11, 40% of college students admitted to masturbation before puberty. - 40% of males and 20% of girl report orgasm from masturbation by age 12. - Boys usually learn of masturbation through peers while girls learn accidentally. |
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Heterosexual Behavior in Childhood |
- Little heterosexual behavior during childhood since boys and girls divide socially. - Heteronormativity is learned |
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Same Gender Sexual Behavior in Childhood |
- Boys are more likely to engage in sexual behavior such as group masturbation or fondling or examining of each others genitals while females are less likely due to social restrictions. |
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Gender-Segregated Social Organization |
- A form of social grouping in which males play and associate with other males while females associate and play with other females; that is, the genders are separate from each other. |
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Heteronormativity |
- The belief that heterosexuality is the only pattern that is normal and natural. |
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Sexualization |
- A process in which a person is valued only for sex appeal or behavior. - It is held to a standard that equates physical attractiveness to being sexy. - People become sexually objectified. - Sexuality is inappropriately imposed on the person. |
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Masturbation in Early Adolescence |
- According to the Kinsey Data, there is a sharp increase in the incidence of masturbation for boys between the ages of 13 and 15. - By age 15, 82% of boys had masturbated to orgasm - Girls begin masturbation at this age but the graph indicates this behavior to be more gradual. |
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Same Gender Sexual Behavior in Early Adolescence |
- 7% of girls and 2% of boys engaged in homosexual oral sex between ages 15 to 19 according to the NSFG. - Girls are more likely to be willing to engage in such behavior than boys. - Prejudice and rejection from family and school suppresses this sexual minority but grow during their late adolescence to well-being. |
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Heterosexual Behavior in Early Adolescence |
- In middle and late adolescence, more young people engage in heterosexual sex. - Generally there is a progression from kissing, to oral sex, and then to coitus following a sexual script. - Data from the NSFG indicate from 1995 to 2010 that around half of boys and girls have engaged in intercourse by age 15 to 19. - When interviewed, reasons for abstinence included religion/morals as first, not wanting pregnancy as second, not having found the right person as third, and STD prevention as a distant fourth place for reason. |
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Too Early Sex in the US |
- 6% of adolescents in the US have experienced sex before the age of 13. - Experts agree that sex before the age of 15 is deemed "unsafe" because it means decreased likeliness of use of contraceptives with multiple partners, increased risks of teen pregnancy, increased risks of infections and STD's. |
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Romantic Relationships in Adolescents |
- More than half of US teens in 2009 say that they had a special romantic relationship in the past 18 months. - Relationships may contribute to psychological benefits but may lead to negative outcomes such as violence, antagonistic peer relations, lowered academic performance, and poor emotional health. |
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Sexting |
- The sending of sexually charged messages or images by cellphone or other electronic media. |
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Masturbation in College Years |
- It can be inferred from multiple surveys that almost all men and a majority of women engage in masturbation. |
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Patterns in Heterosexual Behavior in College Years |
- 44% of students admit to having engaged in intercourse before college. - 11% began engaging in intercourse over the next 6 months. - 48% have not engaged in sex before or during the first 6 months of entering college. - Another study finds that the 20 to 24 year old age group had engaged in sex. |
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Hooking Up |
- A sexual encounter that involves people who are strangers or brief acquaintances, without an expectation of forming a committed relationship. - Behavior may range from making out to oral and coital intercourse. |
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Friends with Benefits |
- A situation in which two people who are friends occasionally have sex with each other. |
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Booty Call |
- A communication to a person who is not a relationship partner conveying the urgent request for sexual activity, perhaps including sexual intercourse. |
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Erik Erikson's Stages of Phsychosocial Development |
- Infancy: basic trust vs mistrust. - Ages 1.5 to 3 years: Autonomy vs shame and doubt. - Ages 3 to 5.5 years: Initiative vs guilt. - Ages 5.5 to 12 years: Industry vs inferiority. - Adolescence: Identity vs role confusion. - Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs isolation. - Adulthood: Generativity vs stagnation. - Maturity: Ego integrity vs despair. |
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Sexual Unfolding |
- The process of sexual development continues to adulthood and the need to define one's own sexual identity and orientation. - Some struggle to fit into a sexual group because of the negative messages associated about sexual minorities. - Homosexuality is more difficult with males than females. |
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The Never Married |
- This term applies to adults who have never married including those who hope to get married or decided to never get married. - The NSFG states at age 30, 32% women and 44% men never married and by age 40, 16% women and 22% never married. - Median age of first marriage in 2006 - 2010 was 25.8 years for women and 28.3 years for men. - Past age 30, finding a partner for marriage becomes harder. |
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Celibate |
- People who decide to never get married but may engage in sexual activity or have temporary partners. |
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Chaste |
- People who decide to never get married and abstain from sexual intercourse. |
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3 Types of Involuntary Celibates |
- Virgins: Never had intercourse, rarely dated, and often had not engaged in any partnered sexual intimacy. - Singles: Had sexual experience but reported it was not satisfying or failed to find and maintain relationships. - Partnered: Persons in sexless relationships. |
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Singleism |
- The stigmatizing and stereotyping of people who are not in a socially recognized couple relationship. |
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Cohabitation |
- Among heterosexuals, cohabitation has become increasingly common in alternative to marriage. - In 2006 - 2010, 12% of men and 11% of women ages 15 to 44 were cohabiting. - About 3/4 of cohabitants intend to or think that they will marry their partner and as matter of fact, 60% do but are more prone to divorce. |
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Marital Relationships |
- According to the US Bureau of Census in 2010, 94% of all people aged 54 or younger are or have been married. - According to the same research, there were over 131000 same sex married households and 514000 same sex unmarried households. - The era of dual-earning households decreases time for sex and time together, leading to relationship problems. |
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Frequency of Marital Intercourse |
- Men and women are equally likely to initiate sex. - 80% of divorce remarry in the next 1.5 to 4 years of divorce. - Average American couple engage in coitus 2 to 3 times per week when they are in their 20's and gradually decline in frequency with age. |
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Techniques in Marital Sex |
- 16% of married couples say intercourse lasted 16 minutes or less. - 9% of married couples say intercourse lasted 1 hour or more. - 74% of women report oral sex. - Women who have attended college are twice as likely to engage in oral sex. - 27% of men and 21% of women say they engaged in anal intercourse. |
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Masturbation in Marriage |
- NSSHB found that 41 to 61% of married men and 44 to 52% of married women ages 18 to 49 reported solo masturbation in the preceding 90 days. - Married people were more likely to report masturbation than their single counterparts. |
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Sexual Patterns in Marriage |
- Intimacy usually wanes after the first few years of marriage and a lot more after childbirth. - Within 10 years, sex patterns change. - Sex patterns become more scheduled through marriage.
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Extramarital Sex |
- Sexual activity between a married person and someone other than that person's spouse; adultery. - A study of 107 couple concluded 37% men and 38% women would flirt outside marriage, 5% men and 7% women would kiss outside marriage, and 2% men and women predicted a one night stand, and less than 1% a serious affair. - NHSLS reported 25% of married men and 15% married women had extramarital sex. - NSFG reports 7.6% married men and 5.8% married women ages 15 to 44 report more than one sex partner in the preceding year. - 78% adults disapprove of extramarital sex. - Found in all cultures and has a evolutionary perspective. |
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Cyberaffair |
- A romantic or sexual relationship initiated by online contact and maintained primarily online via online communication involving a person in a married or committed relationship. - A relatively new phenomenon. |
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Equity Theory |
- A theory that states that people mentally calculate the benefits and costs for them in a relationship. - The behavior is then affected by whether they feel there is equity or inequity, and will act tor restore equity if there is inequity. |
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Patterns in Extra Marital Sex |
- Most common reason for divorce. - Lower in couples with longer relationships. - Accidental: Not planned, unintentional. - Romantic Infidelity: Falling in love outside of marriage. - Philanders: Repeat offenders. - Swinging |
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Swinging |
- A form of extramarital sex in which married couples exchange partners with others. - Closed Swinging: partners exchange and meet at agreed time. - Open Swinging: pairs share same bedroom for at least part of the time.
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Polyamory |
- The nonpossessive, honest, and ethical philosophy and practice of loving multiple people simultaneously. |
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Domains of Extramarital Sex |
- Personal Value - Demographic Risk Factors - Opportunity - Nature of the Couple's Relationship |
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Post Relationship Sex |
- Widows are less likely to engage in post marriage sex than divorcees. - 74% of divorced men and women reported zero or one sexual partner prior to the survey. - Divorced men were twice as sexually active than divorced women at twice a month. |
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Menopause |
- The cessation of menstruation. |
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Climacteric |
- A period lasting 15 to 20 years between ages 45 to 60 during when a woman's body transitions from being able to reproduce. - LH and FSH output remains normal but become less able to respond to pituitary hormones. |
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Osteoporosis |
- Porous and brittle bones some women experience as a long range effect from low estrogen levels during climacteric. - Some symptoms include "hot flashes", night sweats, or vaginal dryness. |
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Hysterectomy |
- Surgical removal of the uterus. - Does not affect sex life most of the time but 1/3 report problems of sexual response. |
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Oophorectomy |
- Surgical removal of the ovaries. - Kills a woman's sex life. |
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Prostatectomy |
- Surgical removal of the prostate. - Leads to problems in the man's sexual functions and sex life.
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Attitudes of Sexuality in the Elderly |
- 22% of societies expect women to become uninhibited to sex the more older they become. - Elderly continue to be sexually active in 70% of societies. - Midlife women reports show that those who identified themselves unattractive 10 years before will decrease sex drive and frequency while those who identified themselves attractive 10 years earlier increase in sex drive and frequency of sex. |
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Arranged Marriages |
- Collectivist / Individualist Cultures have a opposing view. - Yelsma & Athappilly: Higher satisfaction outcome, traditionalists highlight evidence which illustrates the cons of love marriages. - Regan et al: Married Indian couples, 28 of 58 participants report arranged marriage. |
