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172 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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what is the pressure of oxygen, CO2 at Alveoli and Cells
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Oxygen=leaves alveoli and enters circulatory system at 100mm Hg, <40mm Hg at peripheral tissue
CO2=leaves alveoli at 40, >46 at peripheral tissue |
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classify the types of hypoxias and definition
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hypoxic hypoxia-low PO2
Anemic hypoxia-decrease in amount of O2 bound to hemoglobin Ischemic hypoxia-reduced blood flow histoxic hypoxia-failure of cells to use O2 because cells have been poisoned |
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what are causes of low alveolar PO2
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1. High altitude
% O2 doesn’t change, PO2 decreases 2. Alveolar ventilation is inadequate Decreased lung compliance Increased airway resistance Overdose of drugs/alcohol |
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what happens at emphysema
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desctruction of alveoli reduces SA for gas exchange. PO2 is normal or low in alveoli, low in cell
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what happens in fibrotic lung disease
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thickened alveolar membrane slows gas exchange
PO2 in alveola=low or normal PO2 in bloodstream=low |
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what happens in pulmonary edema
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fluid in interstitial space increases diffusion distance. arterial pCO2 may be normal due to hihger CO2 solubility in water
PO2 in alvela=normal PO2 in blood=low |
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what happens in asthma
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increased airway resistance decerases airway as bronchioles that bring air to alveoli is constricted
PO2 in alveola and cell is Low |
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Oxygen diffuses across alveolar epithelial cells and capillary endothelial cells to enter the plasma. How many cell membranes must the O2 cross to reach hemoglobin?
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Five
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how much of O2 is carried by hemoglobin and is dissolaved in plasma
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98% is bound to hemoglobin and 2% is dissolved and is insignificant, both are used in cellular respiration
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give the details of structure of hemoglobin and heme group
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hemoglobin is made of 2 alpha and 2 beta chains, each surrounding heme group.
heme group consists of porphyriin ring with an iron atom in center |
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descibe o2-hemoglobin dissociation curve
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it is sigmoidal. change in O2 saturation of hemoglobin does not occur dramatically until around 40 or below PO2 level
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The Bohr effect
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Decreasing pH or elevating CO2 cause a right shift which favors unloading of O2 from hemogloibin
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how does pCO2 affect unloading of O2
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is pCO2 is high, it favors unloading of O2
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how does temperature affect unloading of O2
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high temp favors unloading of O2
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how does 2,3-DPG affect O2 binding
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more 2,3-DPG induces right shift which favors O2 unloading
DPG is released in response to low arterial PO2 |
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what is the difference between fetal and maternal hemoglobin
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maternal hemoglobin favor unloading of O2 more
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what %s is CO2 transoported by
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Dissolved: 7%
Converted to bicarbonate ion: 70% Bound to hemoglobin: 23% (carbaminohemoglobin) |
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Functions of the Kidneys
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Homeostatic Regulation of
Fluid volume and blood pressure Osmolarity and ion balance pH Excretion Production of hormones |
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anatomy of urinary system in order
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kidney-ureter-urinary bladder-urethra
give order of kidney cross section |
medulla->nephrons->renal pelvis->ureter
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nephrons start at cortex and dip into medulla, give the anatomy of nephron
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bowman's capsule->proximal tube->descending limb->loop of Henle->ascending limb->distal tube->collecting duct
give anatomy of arteries in nephron |
afferent arteriole->Glomerulus-first capillary bed->efferent arteriole->peritubular capillaries
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where does filtration, reabsorption and secretion and excretion occur in kidney
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filtration-from glomerulus to bowmans capsule(blood to lumen)
reabsorption-all along the nephron (lumen to blood) secretion-all along the artery (blood to lumen) excretion-collecitng duct to bladder (lumen to external environment) |
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how does filtrate volume and osmolarity change along the lumen
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bowmans capsule-normal
end of proximal tubule-decrease in volume but osmolarity is same end of loop-less volume and more concentrated (small osmolarity) collecting duct-1.5 L (smallest) and huge range in osmolartiy |
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how do you calculate excretion
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excretion=filtraion-absorption+secretion
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the glomerular capillaries is surrounded by what
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podocytes and bowman's capsule.
how does substance pass through glomerular capillaries |
via pores and filtration slits. (loosely organized)
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how much of blood is excreted to external environment
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less than 1%.
first, 20% filters, 19% reabosrbed=1% excreted |
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what are some forces that influence filtration
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blood pressure(out of glomerulus), colloid osmotic pressure, interstitial pressure created by fluid in Bowman's capsule. the latter two(to the glomerulus)
net filtration= B.P-colloide pressure-fulid pressure |
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how does GFR change with arterial pressure
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from 80-180, autoregulation maintains a constant GFR of 180L/day
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what happens to decrease GFR
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decrease RBF, increase in resistance in afferent, decreae in capillary b.p.
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what happens to increase GFR
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decreased RBF, increased resistance in efferent, increase in capillary b.p.
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GFR Regulation
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Myogenic response
Tubuloglomerular feedback-Glomerulus monitors Na+ Cl- in the distal tubule Hormones and autonomic neurons By changing resistance in arterioles By altering the filtration coefficient |
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how does tubuloglomerular feedback work
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GFR increase->flow past macula densa increases->paracrine diffuses from macula to afferent arteriole->afferent arteriole constricts
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Na reabsorption in tubule
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Na moves from tubule via gradient to tubule cell then to interstitial fluid via NA K ATPase
how does sodium-linked glucose reabsorption occur |
Na moving out takes glucose with it. glucose is taken.
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how does reabsortion occur (in general)
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Na is reabsobed, water follows it.
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when deos Tm reach maximum
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when saturation of plasma and substrate occurs
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how does fitration rate of glucose compare to the plasma glucose concentration
how does it change in reabsorbtion process? in excretion? |
as plasma glucose concentraion increase, so does filtration rate.
in reabsorption, glucose reabsorption of glucose is proportional to plasma concetration until Tm is reached then it plateus. in excretion, glucose excretion is zero until the renal threshold is reached, then it increases |
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Secretion(4 points)
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Transfer of molecules from extracellular fluid into lumen of the nephron
Active process Secretion of K+ and H+ is important in homeostatic regulation Enables the nephron to enhance excretion of a substance Competition decreases penicillin secretion |
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Excretion (4 points)
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Excretion = filtration – reabsorption + secretion
Clearance Rate at which a solute disappears from the body by excretion or by metabolism Non-invasive way to measure GFR Inulin and creatinine used to measure GFR Clearance rate units = ml plasma/min Excretion rate units = mg substance/min |
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how do you calculate GFR
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inject inulin, assume 100% of filtered plasma is reabsorbed and inulin is not reabsobed at all, so 100% of inulin is excreted
what are the clearance rate for glucose and penicilin |
glucose=0
peniciln=more than 100% as additional penicilin is secreted, |
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how do you calculate GFR from Inulin
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GFR = Urine produced/min x [inulin]urine/[inulin]plasma
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how is CO2 carried in the cell to alveoli
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7% is dissolved in plasma. 23% bound to hemoglonbin. 70% goes in the RBC, where HCO3 is produced. with Chloride shift, chlorine anion goes in and HCO3 moves out into plasma. after being transported to the lungs, chloride shift moves these molecules in opposite and all CO2 goes in the alveoli.
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how does our body recognize low PO2 or high CO2 level in blood vessel to increase ventillation
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Glomus cell first closes K channels and open Ca channels. the Ca is Glomus cell is used in neurtransmitting process where AP signals to medullary center to increase ventillation
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what are some symptoms of low high altitude respiratory physilogy
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low PO2-Hypoxic ventilatory drive
Cheyne Stokes Respirations HAPE– High Altitude Pulmonary Edema Vasconstriction in lungs Inflammation in lungs |
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what is clearance rate
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how much of the stuff is excreted
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how does micturition work
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motor neuron fires to get External sphincter(skeletal muscle) to contract and internal sphincter (smooth) is passively contracted. baldder which is a smooth muscle is relaxed.
when stretch receptor fires, parasympathetic activates and motor neuron stops. thus smooth muscle (bladder) contracts while external sphincter relaxes. |
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how does body mainatin water balance
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incoming water=food and drink, metabolism (2.5 L)
outgoing=skin, lungs, urine, feces (2.5 L) |
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describe the urine concentration
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1. isosmotic fluid in proximal tube becomes progressively more concentrated, only water is reabsorbed
2. in ascending limb, only ions are reabsorbed creating hyposmotic fluid 3. in distal nephron, hormones control permeability |
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what does vasopressin do
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it makes collecting duct freely permeable, thus urine becomes more concetrated. the Aquaporins in apical membrane of collecting duct cell acts as water channels where h2o flows to Vasa recta
what happens when there is no vasopressin |
urine osmolarity stays same and Aquaporins are stored in vesicles.
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give the process of water reabsorption via vasopressin
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1.vasopressin binds to receptor
2. receptor activates cAMP messenger 3. cAMP takes aquaporin from vesicle and move to membrane 4. water is absorbed by osmosis into vasa recta |
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when is vasopressin released
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when plasma osmolarity increases
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explain the countercurrent exchange in the loop of Henle
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The limb of tubule and the vena rectahave opposite current. as the tubule descendes, the ascending vasa recta becomes more diluted due to water from the limb. as tubule ascends, it gives off solutes to descending vasa recta which becomes more concentrated
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is the reabsorption of ions passive or active
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it is active. active transports take away the ions while leaving the water behind.
contrary to this, water reabsorption is passive via osmosis |
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how does the body regulate sodium balance
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when salt is ingested, vasopressin is secreted to reabsorb water. the intake of water increases ECF and B.P. then kidney excrete salt and some water
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how does Aldosterone work
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Aldosterone attaches to a hormone-recepotor which inititates transcription in the nucleus which then translates new protein channels and pumps are made. these new proteins modifu the existing proteins to increase Na reabsoption and K secretion
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in what conditions is Renin released
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when low B.P. increases sympathetic activity. or when it decreases GFR which decrease NaCl which is sensed by Macula Densa of distal tubule and release paracrines. these two processes both effect GRANULAR CELLS which releases Renin
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how does the release of angiotensionogen affect B.P. and osmolarity
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angiotensionogen becomes ANGI then ANG II. The ANG II increases B.P. by vasoconstriction and increasing cardio response. The ANGII also increases the volume to maintain osmolarity by increasing vasopressin release, thirst, and Na reabsoption
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when is aldosterone released
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when there is increase in K, decrease in Na, decrease in B.P., when RAAS is released.
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where is vasopressin and awuaporins located
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Distal tubule and collecting duct
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what affects do Hypothalamus, kidney, adrenal cortex, medulla oblongata have
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hypothalamus-vasopressin
kidney-GRF and Renin adrenal Cortex-adolesterone medulla oblongata-B.P |
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how does natriureticpeptide affect sodium and water excretion
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when blood volume increases, atrial cells releases natriureticpeptide which results in less vasopressin, renin, adolestrone, B.P., and increase in GFR
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what controls potassium balance the most
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Aldosterone
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what are some symptoms of potassium defficiency
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Hypokalemia -Muscle weakness and failure of respiratory muscles and the heart
Hyperkalemia -Can lead to cardiac arrhythmias Causes include kidney disease, diarrhea, and diuretics |
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when does hemorrhage occur
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when volume decreases and osmolarity stays same
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what does increased B.P. do to our volume/ osmolarity response
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increase GFR, natriuretic peptide release, stop thirst, stop vasopressin, decrease sympathetic, increase parasympathetic
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what does decreased B.P. do to our volume/ osmolarity response
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decrease GFR, renin secretion, increase symp and decrease para, thirst stimulation, vasopressin secretion
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what does increased osmolarity do to our volume/ osmolarity response
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decrease aldosterone secretion, thirst stimulation, vasopressin secretion
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what does decreased osmolarity do to our volume/ osmolarity response
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increase aldosterone secretion, decrease vasopressin secretion
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28-34
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a
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what is normal pH of plasma
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7.38-7.42
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abnomal pH affects nervous system. what happens in Acidosis and Alkalosis
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neurons become less excitable and CNS depression
in Alkalosis, neurons are hyperexcitable |
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what is pH disturbance most closely associated with
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K disturbance
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slide 36
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d
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what are some Acid input
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organic acids, production of CO2, ketoacid production
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what is source of base input
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few dietary sources of bases
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how is pH regulated by lungs
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it is very fast and controls for 75% of disturbance
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how is pH regulated by kidney
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it is very slow. it directly excretes or reabsorbs H. it indirectly change the rate at which HCO3 buffer is reabsorbed or excreted
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what are some buffers that moderate changes in pH
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proteins, phosphate,, hemoglobin
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when there is increase in plasma H (low pH) and increase in plasma pCO2, what happens
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the rate and depth of breathing increases which lowers plasma pCO2 which decreases plasma H and increases pH
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how does kidney compensate for Acidosis
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Acidosis=decrease in pH, increase in H
From CO2+H2O, H gets secreted and excreted, and HCO3 gets reabsorbed. The NH4 also gets secreted and excreted |
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Where is most Na, HCO, H2O reabsorbed
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Proximal Tube
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In acidosis, what gets reabsorbed and what gets secreted
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Na and CO2 gets reabsorbed. The Co2 then becomes HCO3. H and NH4 gets secreted and excreted.
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What do intercalated disks do?
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Excrete H, reabsorb HCO3 and K, vise versa in order to fine tune pH
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What happens to the Pco2 and HCO in respiratory and metabolic of Acidosis and Alkalosis
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Acidosis
Respiratory=pCO2 increase and HCO3 increase Metabolic=pCO2 decrease, HCO3 decrease Alkalosis Respiratory=PCO2 decrease, HCO3 decrease Metabolic=PCO2 increase, HCO3 decrease |
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What are the transporters involved in renal compensation
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Na-H antiport, Na-HCO3 symport, H ATPase, H-K ATPase, Na-NH4 antiport
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What are the buffers used in Acidbase balance
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HCO3, protein, hemoglobin, phosphate, ammonia
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what are the four layers of Digestive tract from inner to outer
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mucosa(lamina propria, muscularis mucosae, villi), submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa
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how does stomach and intestine increase its surface area
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stomach=gastric glands
intestine=villi and crypts |
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how is food moved forward in GI tract
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by Peristaltic contraction
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where is the most absorption of fluid occur
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small intestine
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what secreted hydrochloric acid into lumen
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parietal cell
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what secretes bicarbonate into lumen
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pancreatic cell or duodenal cell
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where is Cl secreted and thgough what channel
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in small intestine and colon via CFTR channel
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what does liver secrete
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bile to emulsify fat
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what are the two cells that secrete mucus
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mucous cell(stomach), goblet cell (intestine)
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in GI, long and short reflexes are integrated in...
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long reflex in CNS, short reflex in ENS
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ENS is different from CNS by having
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intrinsic neurons, tight junctions in capillaries, interneurons as integrating center
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what are some digestive hormones
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Grastrin family, secretin family, motilin
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explain the digestion of carbohydrates
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glucose polymers go through amylase to become disaccharides and then monosaccharides.
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maltase, sucrase, lactase consists of what
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maltase=2 glucose, sucrase=1 glucose, 1 fructose, lactase=1 glucose, 1 galactose
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how does glucose and fructose enter the capillary from small intestine
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glucose enters via SGLT, exits GLUT 2.
fructose enters via GLUT 5 and exits via GLUT 2 |
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what does endopeptidase and exopeptidase digest
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endopeptidase digests internal peptide bonds to get 2 smaller peptides
exopeptidase digests terminal peptide to get amino acids |
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how is tripeptide and amino acids absorbed
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tripeptide is absorbed by cotransport with H
amino acid is cotransported with Na |
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when triglyceride goes through lipase and colipase, it becomes
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monoglyceride and 2 free fatty acids
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what is chylomicrons made of
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triglyceride, cholesterol and protein
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where does chylomicrons end up
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lymph system, NOT capillaries
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what is emulsification
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combining two insoluble substances into a mixture
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what is nucleic acid digested into
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nitrogenous bases and monosaccharides
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describe the sequence of swallowing relflex
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tongue pushes bolus against soft palate->epiglottis closes to close the airways->food moves town into esophagus by peristaltic waves
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explain the process of cephalic and gastric phases
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cephalic reflex initiates gastric secretion which stimulates acid and secretes pepsinogen.
Somatostain is the negative feedback |
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how does pH in stomach change towards capillary
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pH in stomach is acidic, as it passes bicarbonate barrier it is neutralized to pH of 7
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where is hepatic portal vein located
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going towards liver, it is out of oxygen, so liver gets oxygen from hepatic artery
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in vomiting, reverse peristalsis begins in
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small intestine
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what are the symptoms of having MEtabolic syndrome
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obese, high triglycerides, high BP, low HDL-C
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what causes the increase in leptin secretion
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increase in food intake, negative control is sleep deprivation
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in fed stated and fasted state, what is the net synthesis
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fed=insulin makes glycogen
fasted=glucagon makes glucose |
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in fed state, what happens to glycogenolysis and glycogenesis
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glycogenolysis is inhibited
glycogenesis is stimulated |
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what has ApoA and ApoB
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HDL has ApoA, LDL has ApoB
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what happens in fast stated metabolism
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liver synthesize glucose via glucogenesis
muscle proteins are broken down to amino acids and deanimated to be used for glucogenesis lipids break down into glycerol which turns into glucose |
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explain the homeostatic control in fed state where insulin dominates
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increase in glycogen, protein, fat synthesis and increase in glucose oxidation
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explain the homeostatic control in fasted state where glucagon dominates
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increase in glycogenolysis, gluconeogensis and ketogensis
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what are the stimuli for insulin release
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parasympathetic activity, growth hormones, plasma glucose >100mg
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in fed state, liver cell takes up glucose how
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by insulin attaching to receptor. glucose level in the liver cell is still low
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in fasted state, how are the concentrations of glucose like in liver cell
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in the liver cell, glucose is made and transported out of the cell. in the liver cell, gluconeogensis and glycogenolysis occurs
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what happens when there is too much glucose in plasma, what if too little glucose?
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if too much insulin release increases.
if too little, glucagon increases |
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how does the glucose level of diabetic subject differ from normal subject
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glucose level in diabetic subjects are higher
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peripheral and central thermoreceptors go to
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hypothalamic thermoregulatory center
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is sweat heat loss or gain?
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heat loss
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what are the female and male chromosomes
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female=XX
Male=XY |
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how many genes do X and Y chromosome have
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X=2000genes
Y=78 genes SRY |
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how many pairs of autosomes are there
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22 pairs
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what happens in the development of female internal organs
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when there is No SRY, gonadal cortex becomes an ovary. Wolffian duct degenerates. No Anti Mullerian hormone, mullerian duct develops
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what happens in the development of male internal organs
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SRY directs medulla to develop into testis. AMH->Mullerian duct degenerates. presence of testosterone develps Wolffian duct
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explain the development of external genitalia of female and male
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in the absence of androgens, external genitalia are feminized.
DHT(androgen) causes develpment of male eternal genitalia and testes descend from abdominal cavity |
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AMH is secreted by what cell in which gender
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in male, Sertoli cells secrete it to regress mullerian ducts
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DHT and testosterone (androgen) are secreted by what cell to do what
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Leydig cells secrete DHT and testosterone. testosterone initiates Wolfian duct development. DHT produces external genitalia
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how does the timing of spermatogensis and oogenesis differ
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spermatogensis begins at male puberty and continues till menopause
oogensis is finished by birth and menopause indicates the depletion of oocytes |
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when does meiosis 1 and 2 start and end
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meiosis I begins after primary gamete and ends in ovulation
meiosis II begins at secondary gamete and ends in fertilization and haploid gamete |
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what hormones are released from each part of HPG axis
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hypothalamus-Gonadotropin
Pituitary-Lutenizing, FSH Gonads-testerone, estrogen, DHT, inhibins (inhibit FSH release, acivins-activate FSH) |
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what happens to gonadotropin level when estrogen or androgen is Low, moderate, high, Sustained high
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low=absence of negative feedback, gonadotropin increases
moderate/high=negative feedback. gonadotropin decreses sustained high estrogen=positive feedback. GnRH increases |
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trace the path of sperm production to ejaculation
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from testis->vas deferens to urethra to penis
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what is the function of Sertoli cells and Leydig cells in spermatogensis
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Sertoli cells nurture developing sperm cells
Leydig cells release androgens and testosterones |
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what is the funciton of acrosome
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it uses enzyme to break down the outer membrane of ovum
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what is capacitation
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the physiological maturation of sperm cell
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what does vulva consist of
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labia minora, majora, clitoris
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what is follicle and corpus luteum
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follicle: oocyte+support cell such as Granulosa or Thecal
Corpus luteum=post-ovulatory follicale |
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what happens in the phases of menstrual cycle
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1. follicular phase-egg matures
2. ovulation=ripened follicles and release of oocytes 3. luteal phase-ruptured follicle(corpus luteum |
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what happens in each phase of uterine cycle
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menses=bleeding, shedding endometrium
proliferative phase=new layer of endometrium in preparation for pregnancy secretory phase=release of estrogen, inhibin, high body temp |
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in female, FSH and LH and GnRH in female is controlled this way..
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low estrogen=inhibits FSH/LH
high estrogen=stimulates LH release high estrogen=increases GnRH release |
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FSH and LH each stimulates what in female
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FSH stimulates foolicular development
LH stimulates thecal cells to produce androgens |
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what two substances are needed for egg releaseq
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collegenase+prostagladins
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what does corpus luteum secrete
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progesterone (estrogen and inhibin) to maintain endometrium
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what determines pregancy or no pregnancy in the late luteal phase
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pregnancy=maintained high levels of progesterone, estrogen, inhibin (low FSH and LH)
no pregnancy=decrease level of progesterone->endometerium unsupported results in Menses (high level of FSH and LH) |
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what does corpus luteal become if egg is not fertilized
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corpus albicans
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explain the overview of ovulation through eggs reaching the uterus
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ovulation->fertilization in falloian tube->blastocyst reaches uterus
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explain the 4 stages of child birth(parturition)
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1. hormonal changes-decreased estrogen/ progesterone
2. Labor-uterine contractions (cervical stretch) stimulated by increase in oxytocin and prostaglandins 3. Delivery-"positive feedback" is end point driven 4.uterine continues to contract until placenta is expelled |
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when does puberty hit females and males. what happens in menopause and andropause
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female=12 (GnRH pulse generator activated)
male=9 to 14 Menopause=exhausted ovaires, decreaesd FSH/LH sensitivity Andropause=decreased testosterone |
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what happens to the ANS NS during erection
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parasympathetic is activated, sympathetic is inhibited
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adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex secretes what
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adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines
adrenal cortex 3 regions 1. zona reticularis=secrete sex hormones 2. zona fasciculata=secretes glucocorticoids 3. zona glomerulosa=secrete aldosterone |
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when is the cortisol secretion during circadian rhythm highest and lowest
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highest=before noon
lowest=at noon, before waking up |
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in thyroid gland, C cells and follicular cells each secrete what
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C cells secrete calcitonin
Follicular cells secrete thyroid hormone |
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what is the difference between T4 and T3
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T4 (thyroxine) has 4 Iodines attached to the 2 tyrosine
T3 (triiodothyronine) has 3 iodines in two tyrosine |
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what does thyroid hormone release and what does it to
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atonic. increase O2, NaKATPase, enzyme activity.
protein cataboilism in adults. protein anabolism in juveniles |
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what happens in hyperhtyroidism
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heat intolierance, muscle breakdown(cataboiism), hyperexcitable reflexes
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what happens in hypothyroidism
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slow metabolism, slow reflexes, decrease in protein synthesis
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what are the diseases caused by hypothyroid
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hashimoto's disease which is a autoimmune disease and a result of iodine deficiency
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what are the diseases caused by hyperthyroid
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tumor, graves disease
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how does dwarfism, giantism, acromegaly occur
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dwarfism=Growth hormone deficiency
Giantism=oversecretion of GH in Children Acromegaly=oversecretion of GH in adults |
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what do tissue and bone need most to grow
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tissue need hormones (GH, insulin, thyroid hormone) and paracrines
bone needs calcium (in hydrixypatite) |
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what are some roles of Calcium
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signal molecule, tight junction component, excitability of neurons, cofactor in coagulation
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what are the roles of Parathyroid hormone and Calcitriol, and calcitonin
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parathyroid hormone= mobilize calcium from bone, enhance renal reabsorption
Calcitriol=Ca absorption in GI Calcitonin=prevents bone resorption, enhance renal excretion |
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what is the roles of Phosphate in endocrine systme
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makes hydroxyapatite, energy transfer, part of DNA and RNA, activate and deactivate enzymes
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when is cortisol released and what are its effects
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when under stress, it promotes gluconeogensis and increase blood sugar, fat, protein. it suppresses the immune system. causes negative calcium balance. stops neurogensis in the brain
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what happens in hypocortioslism (addisons disease)
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hyposecretion of all adrenal steroid hormones, autoimmune destruction of adrenal cortex, causes stress, depresion
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