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284 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Accommodation
Piaget’s changing existing knowledge based on new knowledge
Age of viability
age of a fetus where they can survive b/c most of its bodily systems function adequately; usually 7 months
Alert inactivity
state in which a baby is calm with eyes open & attentive; baby seems to be deliberately inspecting the environment
Alleles
variations of genes
Altruism
prosocial behavior such as helping and sharing in which the individual does not benefit directly from his or her behavior
Amniocentesis
prenatal diagnostic technique that involves withdrawing a sample of amniotic fluid through the abdomen with a syringe
Amnion
inner sac in which the developing child rests
Amniotic fluid
fluid that surrounds the fetus
Analytic ability
in Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, the ability to analyze problems and generate different solutions
Animism
crediting inanimate objects with life and lifelike properties such as feelings
Assimilation
according to Piaget, taking in information that is compatible with what one already knows
Attachment
enduring social-emotional relationship between infants and their caregivers
Attention
processes that determine which information will be processed further by an individual
Authoritarian parenting
parents who show high levels of control and low levels of warmth toward their children
Authoritative parenting
parents who use a moderate amt of control and are warm and responsive to their children
Autobiographical memory
memories of the significant events and experiences of one’s own life
Autosomes
first 22 pairs of chromosomes
Average children
as applied to children’s popularity, children who are liked and disliked by classmates, but with relatively little intensity
Avoidant attachment
relationship in which infants turn away from their mothers when they are reunited following a brief separation
Axon
tubelike structure that emerges from the cell body and transmits information to other neurons
Babbling
speechlike sounds that consist of vowel-consonant combinations
Basic cry
cry that starts softly and gradually becomes more intense; often heard when babies are hungry or tired
Basic emotions
emotions experienced by humankind and that consist of three elements; a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt behavior
Behavioral genetics
the branch of genetics that studies the inheritance of behavioral and psychological traits
Biological forces
all genetic and health related factors that affect development
Biopsychosocial framework
view that integrates biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle forces on development
Blended family
family consisting of a biological parent, a stepparent, and children
Cardinality principle
counting principle that the last number name denotes the number of objects being counted
Cell body
center of the neuron that keeps the neuron alive
Centration
according to Piaget, narrowly focused type of thought characteristic of preoperational children
Cephalocaudal principle
a principle of physical growth that states that structures nearest the head develop first
Cerebral cortex
wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many functions that are distinctly human
Cesarean section
surgical removal of infant from the uterus through an incision made in the mother’s abdomen
Chorionic villius sampling
prenatal diagnostic technique that involves taking a sample of tissue from the chorion
Chromosomes
threadlike structures in the nuclei of cells that contain genetic material
Classical conditioning
a form of learning that involves pairing a neutral stimulus and a response originally produced by another
Clique
small group of friends who are similar in age, sex, and race
Cognitive self-regulation
skill at identifying goals, selecting effective strategies, and accurate monitoring a characteristic of successful students
Cohort effects
differences between individuals that result from experiences and circumstances unique to a person’s particular generation
Comprehension
the process of extracting meaning from a sequence of words
Cones
specialized neurons in the back of the eye that sense color
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
genetic disorder in which girls are masculinized because the adrenal glands secrete large amounts of androgen during prenatal development
Constricting actions
one partner tries to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting the other
Continuity-discontinuity issue
issue concerned with whether a developmental phenomenon follows a smooth progression throughout the lifespan or a series of abrupt shifts
Controversial children
as applied to children’s popularity, children who are liked or disliked, intensely, by classmates
Convergent thinking
using information to arrive at one standard and correct answer
Cooing
early vowel-like sounds that babies produce
Cooperative play
play that is organized
Core knowledge hypothesis
infants are born with rudimentary knowledge of the world, which is elaborated based on experiences
Corpus callosum
thick bundle of neurons that connects the two hemispheres
Correlation coefficient
statistic that reveals the strength and direction of the relation between two variables
Correlational study
investigation looking at relations between variables as they exist naturally in the world
Counterimitation
learning what should not be done by observing the behavior
Creative ability
in Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, the ability to deal adaptively with novel situations and problems
Cross-sectional study
research design in which people of different ages are compared at one point in time
Crowd
large group including many cliques that have similar attitudes and values
Crowning
appearance of the top of the baby’s head during labor
Crying
state in which a baby cries vigorously, usually accompanied by agitated but uncoordinated movement
Culture-fair intelligence tests
intelligence tests devised using items common to many cultures
Deductive reasoning
drawing conclusions from facts; characteristic of formal operational thought
Dendrite
end of the neuron that receives information; it looks like a tree with many branches
Deoxyribonucleic acid
molecule composed of four nucleotide bases that is the biochemical basis of heredity
Dependent variable
behavior that is observed after other variables are manipulated
Differentiation
distinguishing and mastering individual motions
Direct instruction
telling a child what to do, when, and why
Disinhibition
form of observational learning in which all behaviors like those observed are more likely following observation
Disorganized (disoriented) attachment
relationship in which infants don’t seem to understand what’s happening when they are separated and later reunited with their mothers
Divergent thinking
thinking in novel and unusual directions
Dizygotic twins
result of the fertilization of two separate eggs by two sperm; fraternal twins
Dominance hierarchy
ordering of individuals within a group in which group members with lower status defer to those with greater status
Dominant
form of an allele whose chemical instructions are followed
Doula
person familiar with childbirth who provides emotional and physical support throughout labor and delivery
Dynamic systems theory
theory that views motor development as involving many distinct skills organized and reorganized over time to meet specific needs
Dynamic testing
measures learning potential by having a child learn something new in the presence of the examiner and with the examiner’s help
Ecological theory
view that human development cannot be separated from the environmental contexts in which development occurs
Ectoderm
outer layer of the embryo that will become the hair, outer layer of skin, and the nervous system
Egocentrism
difficulty in seeing the world from another’s point of view; typical of children in the preoperational period
Elaboration
memory strategy in which information is embellished to make it more memorable
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
pattern of brain waves recorded from electrodes that are placed on the scalp
Embryo
term given to the zygote once it is completely embedded in the uterine wall
Emotional intelligence
ability to use one’s own and others’ emotions effectively for solving problems and living happily
Empathy
experiencing another person’s feelings
Enabling actions
individuals’ actions and remarks that tend to support others and sustain the interaction
Endoderm
inner layer of the embryo, which will become the lungs and digestive system
Epigenetic principle
view in Erikson’s theory that each psychosocial stage has its own period of importance
Equilibration
according to Piaget, a process by which children reorganize their schemes to return to a state of equilibrium when disequilibrium occurs
Eugenics
effort to improve the human species by letting only people whose characteristics are valued by a society mate and pass along their genes
Evolutionary psychology
theoretical view that many human behaviors represent successful adaptations to the environment
Exosystem
social settings that influence one’s development even though one does not experience them firsthand
Experiment
systematic way of manipulating factors that a researcher thinks cause a particular behavior
Expressive style
language-learning style that describes children whose vocabularies include many social phrases that are used like one word
Extremely low birth weight
newborns who weigh less than 2 lbs
Familial mental retardation
form of mental retardation that does not involve biological damage but represents the low end of the normal distribution of intelligence
Fast mapping
fact that children make connections between new words and referents so quickly that they can’t be considering all possible meanings
Fetal alcohol syndrome
disorder affecting babies whose mothers consumed alcohol while pregnant
Fetal medicine
field of medicine concerned with treating prenatal problems before birth
Fine motor skills
motor skills associated with grasping, holding, and manipulating objects
Friendship
voluntary relationship between two people involving mutual liking
Frontal cortex
brain region that regulates personality and goal-directed behavior
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
method of studying brain activity using a magnetic field to track blood flow in the brain
Gender constancy
understanding that maleness and femaleness do not change over situations or personal wishes
Gender identity
sense of oneself as male or female
Gender labeling
young children’s understanding that they are either boys or girls and naming themselves accordingly
Gender stability
understanding in preschool children that boys become men and girls become women
Gender stereotypes
beliefs and images about males and females that are not necessarily true
Gender-schema theory
theory that states that children first decide whether an object, activity, or behavior is female or male, then use this info to decide whether they should learn more about it
Gene
group of nucleotide bases that provide a specific set of biochemical instructions
Genotype
person’s hereditary makeup
Germ disc
small cluster of cells near the center of the zygote that will develop into a baby
Grammatical morpheme
words or endings of words that make a sentence grammatical
Habituation
becoming unresponsive to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly
Hemispheres
right and left halves of the cortex
Heterozygous
when the alleles differ from each other
Homozygous
when the chromosomes in a pair are the same
Hope
according to Erikson, an openness to new experience tempered by wariness that occurs when trust and mistrust are in balance
Hostile aggression
unprovoked aggression that seems to have the sole goal of intimidating, harassing, or humiliating another child
Human development
multidisciplinary scientific study of how people change and how they stay the same
Huntington’s disease
progressive and fatal type of dementia
Hypoxia
a birth complication in which blood flow is disrupted & the infant does not receive adequate oxygen
Imitation (observational learning)
learning that happens by watching those around us
Implantation
step in which the zygote borrows into the uterine wall and establishes connections with a woman’s blood vessels
In vitro fertilization
process by which sperm and an egg are mixed in a petri dish to create a zygote, which is then placed in a woman’s uterus
Incomplete dominance
situation in which one allele does not dominate another completely
Independent variable
factor that researchers manipulate in an experiment
Infant mortality
the number of infants out of 1,000 births who die before their first birthday
Infant-directed speech
way of speaking in which adults speak slowly and with exaggerated changes in pitch and loudness
Information-processing theory
view that human cognition consists of mental hardware and software
Inhibition
a decrease in an entire class of behaviors after children observe another person performing a specific behavior
Instrumental aggression
aggression used to achieve an explicit goal
Integration
linking individual motions in a coherent, coordinated whole
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
mathematical representation of how a person scores on an intelligence test in relation to how other people of the same age score
Internal working model
infant’s understanding of how responsive and dependable the mother is; thought to influence close relationships throughout the child’s life
Intersensory redundancy
infants’ sensory systems are attuned to information presented simultaneously to different sensory modes
Irregular or rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
irregular sleep in which an infant’s eyes dart rapidly beneath the eyelids while the body is quite active
Joint custody
after divorce, both parents share legal custody of their children
Kinetic cues
cues to depth perception in which motion is used to estimate depth
Knowledge-telling strategy
writing down information as it is retrieved from memory, a common practice for young writers
Knowledge-transforming strategy
deciding what information to include and how best to organize it to convey a point
Learning disability
when a child with normal intelligence has difficulty mastering at least one academic subject
Life course perspective
describes the ways in which various generations experience the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces of development in their respective historical contexts
Life-cycle forces
differences in how the same event may affect people at different ages
Life-span perspective
view that development is determined by many biological, psychological, and social factors and that all parts of the lifespan are interrelated
Linear perspective
a cue to depth perception based on the fact that parallel lines come together at a single point in the distance
Locomote
ability to move around in the world
Longitudinal study
research design in which a single cohort is studied over multiple measurements
Long-term memory
permanent storehouse for memories that has unlimited capacity
Low birth weight
newborns who weigh less than 5 pounds
Macrosystem
the cultural and subcultural settings in which the Microsystems, mesosystems, and exosystems are embedded
Mad cry
more intense version of a basic cry
Malnourished
being small for one’s age because of inadequate nutrition
Mental age (MA)
in intelligence testing, a measure of children’s performance corresponding to the chronological age of those whose performance equals the child’s
Mental hardware
mental and neural structures that are built-in and that allow the mind to operate
Mental operations
cognitive actions that can be performed on objects or ideas
Mental retardation
substantially below-average intelligence and problems adapting to an environment that emerge before age of 18
Mental software
mental “programs” that are the basis for performing particular tasks
Mesoderm
middle layer of the embryo; becomes the muscles, bones, and circulatory system
Mesosystem
the interrelations between different microsystems
Meta-analysis
tool that allows researchers to synthesize the results of many studies to estimate relations between variables
Metacognitive knowledge
person’s knowledge and awareness of cognitive processes
Metamemory
person’s informal understanding of memory; includes the ability to diagnose memory problems accurately and to monitor the effectiveness of memory strategies
Microsystem
the people and objects that are present in one’s immediate environment
Monozygotic twins
identical twins-same egg
Motion parallax
kinetic cue to depth perception based on the fact that nearby moving objects move across our visual field faster than distant objects do
Motor skills
coordinated movements of the muscles and limbs
Myelin
fatty sheath that wraps around neurons to permit them to transmit info more rapidly
Naturalistic observation
form of systematic observation in which people are observed as they behave spontaneously in some real-life situation
Nature-nurture issue
issue genetics versus environmental factors development
Negative reinforcement trap
unwittingly reinforcing a behavior you want to discourage
Neglected children
children who are ignored by their classmates, being neither liked nor disliked
Neural plate
flat group of cells present in prenatal development that becomes the brain and the spinal cord
Neuron
basic cell unit of the brain and nervous system that specializes in receiving and transmitting info
Neuroplasticity
extent to which brain organization is flexible
Neurotransmitter
chemicals released by the terminal buttons that allow neurons to communicate with each other
Niche-picking
process of deliberately seeking environments that are compatible with one’s genetic makeup
Night terrors
state of partial consciousness associated with panic, rapid breathing, and heavy perspiration; may result from waking rapidly from a deep sleep
Nightmares
vivid, frightening dreams that occur toward morning and wake the child
Nonshared environmental influences
forces within a family that make siblings different from one another
Object permanence
understanding, acquired in infancy, that objects exist independently of oneself
One-to-one principle
counting principle that states that there must be one and only one number name for each object counted
Operant conditioning
view of learning by B.F. Skinner, that emphasizes reward and punishment
Ordinality
numbers that differ in magnitude with some values greater than others
Organic mental retardation
mental retardation that can be traced to a specific biological or physical problem
Organization
memory-a strategy in which info to be remembered is structured so that related info is placed together
Orienting response
individual fixes eyes on a strong or unfamiliar stimulus and changes in heart rate and brainwave activity occur
Overextension
when children define words more broadly than adults do
Overregularization
grammatical usage that results from applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule
Pain cry
cry that begins with a sudden long burst, followed by a long pause and gasping
Parallel play
when children play alone but are aware of and interested in what another child is doing
Perception
processes by which the brain receives, selects, modifies, and organizes incoming nerve impulses that are the result of physical stimulation
Period of the fetus
longest period of prenatal development, extending from the 9th until the 38th week after conception
Permissive parenting
style of parenting that offers warmth and caring but little parental control over children
Phenotype
physical, behavioral, and psychological features that result from the interaction one’s genes and the environment
Phenylketonuria
inherited disorder in which the infant lacks a liver enzyme
Phonemes
unique speech sounds that can be used to create words
Phonological awareness
the ability to hear the distinctive sounds of letters
Phonological memory
ability to remember speech sounds briefly; an important skill in acquiring vocabulary
Pictorial cues
cues to depth perception used to convey depth in pictures
Placenta
structure through which nutrients and wastes are exchanged between the mother and developing child
Polygenic inheritance
when phenotypes are the result of the combined activity of many separate genes
Popular children
children who are liked by many classmates
Population
broad group of people that is the focus of research
Practical ability
in Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, the ability to know solutions to problems are likely to work
Prejudice
a view of other people, usually negative, that is based on their membership in a specific group
Prenatal development
the many changes that turn a fertilized egg into a newborn human
Preterm (premature)
babies born before the 36th week after conception
Private speech
comments that are not intended for others but serve the purpose of helping children regulate their behavior
Propositions
ideas derived by combining words
Prosocial behavior
any behavior that benefits another person
Proximodistal principle
principle of physical growth that states that structures nearest the center of the body develop first
Psychodynamic theories
theories in which human behavior is said to be guided by motives and drives that are internal and often unconscious
Psychological forces
all internal perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and personality factors that affect development
Psychometricians
psychologists who specialize in measuring psychological traits such as intelligence and personality
Psychosocial theory
Erikson-theory in which personality development results from the interaction of maturation and societal demands
Punishment
applying an aversive stimulus (spanking) or removing an attractive stimulus
Purpose
Erikson-balance between individual initiative and the willingness to cooperate with others
Reaction range
a genotype is manifested in reaction to the environment where development takes place, so a single genotype can lead to a range of phenotypes
Recessive
allele whose instructions are ignored when it is combined with a dominant allele
Referential style
language-learning style that describes children whose vocabularies are dominated by names of objects, persons, or actions
Reflexes
unlearned responses triggered by specific stimulation
Regular (nonREM) sleep
sleep in which heart rate, breathing, and brain activity are steady
Reinforcement
consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated in the future
Rejected children
children who are disliked by many classmates
Relational aggression
aggression used to hurt others by undermining their social relationships
Reliability
when test scores are consistent from 1 testing time to another
Resistant attachment
relationship after a brief separation infants want to be held but are different to console
Retinal disparity
way to infer depth based on differences in the retinal images in the left and right eyes
Sample
subset of a population
Savants
individuals with mental retardation who are extremely talented in one domain
Scaffolding
teaching style in which adults adjust the amount of assistance that they offer, based on the learner’s needs
Scheme
Piaget- a mental structure that organizes info and regulates behavior
Secure attachment
relationship in which infants have come to trust and depend on their mothers
Selective optimization with compensation model
a model of successful adaptation to aging that emphasizes selection of goals, followed by efforts to maintain or enhance those chosen goals
Self reports
people’s answers to questions about the topic of interest
Self-efficacy
belief that one is capable of performing a certain task
Sensorimotor period
1st of Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development, which lasts from birth to approximately 2 years
Sequential design
complex research design consisting of multiple cross-sectional or longitudinal designs
Sex chromosomes
23rd pair of chromosomes; determines sex of child
Sickle-cell trait
disorder that shows mild signs of anemia when they are deprived of oxygen; occurs in people who have one dominant allele for normal blood cells and one recessive sickle-cell allele
Simple social play
play that begins at about 15 to 18 months; kids engage in similar activities, talk and smile at each other
Sleeping
state as a baby alternates from being still and breathing regularly to moving gently and breathing irregularly and in which the eyes are closed throughout
Sleepwalking
people’s answers to questions about the topic of interest
Social cognitive theory
view that thinking, as well as direct reinforcement and punishment, plays an important part in shaping behavior
Social referencing
behavior in which infants in unfamiliar environments often look at their mother or father, as if searching for cues to help them interpret the situation
Social role
set of cultural guidelines about how one should behave, especially with other people
Social smiles
smile that infants produce when they see a human face
Socialization
teaching children the values, roles, and behaviors of their culture
Sociocultural forces
all interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic factors that influence development
Spina bifida
disorder in which the embryo’s neural tube does not close property
Stable-order principle
counting principle that states that number names must always be counted in the same order
Stem cells
unspecialized human or animal cells that can produce mature specialized body cells and at the same time replicate themselves
Stereotype threat
an evoked fear of being judged in accordance with a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong
Stranger wariness
first distinct signs of fear that emerge around 6 months of age when infants become wary in the presence of unfamiliar
Stress
physical and psychological responses to threatening or challenging conditions
Structured observations
setting created by a researcher that is particularly likely to elicit the behavior of interest so that it can be observed
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
situation in which a healthy baby dies suddenly for no apparent reason
Synaptic pruning
gradual reduction in the number of synapses, beginning in infancy and continuing until early adolescence
Systematic observation
involves watching people and carefully recording what they say or do
Telegraphic speech
speech used by young children that contains only the words that are necessary to get a message across
Temperament
consistent style of pattern of behavior
Teratogen
agent that causes abnormal prenatal development
Terminal button
small knobs at the end of the axon that release neurotransmitters
Texture gradient
perceptual cue to depth based on the fact that the texture of objects changes from coarse but distinct for nearby objects to finer and less distinct for distant objects
Theory
organized set of ideas that explains development
Theory of mind
ideas about connections between thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and behavior that create an intuitive understanding of the link between mind and behavior
Time-out
punishment for misbehaving to be quiet in an unstimulating environment
Toddler
young child who have learned to walk
Toddling
early, unsteady form of walking done by infants
Ultrasound
prenatal diagnostic technique that bounces sound waves off the fetus to generate an image of the fetus
Umbilical cord
structure containing veins and arteries that connects the developing child to the placenta
Underextension
when children define words more narrowly than adults do
Uninvolved parenting
style of parenting that provides neither warmth nor control and that minimizes the amount time parents spend with kids
Universal versus context-specific development issue
issue of whether there is one path of development or several
Validity
as applied to tests, the extent to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure
Vernix
substance that protects the fetus’s skin during development
Very low birth weight
newborns who weigh less than 3 lbs
visual acuity
smallest pattern that one can distinguish reliably
visual cliff
glass-covered platform that appears to have a “shallow” side and “deep” side; used to study infants’ depth perception
Visual expansion
kinetic cue to depth perception that refers to the fact that as an object moves closer it fills an evergreater proportion of the retina
Waking activity
state in which a baby’s eyes are open but unfocused and the limbs move in bursts of uncoordinated motion
Will
Erikson- a young child’s understanding that he or she can act on the world intentionally, which occurs when autonomy, shame, and doubt are in balance
Word recognition
the process of identifying a unique pattern of letters
Working memory
type of memory in which a small number of items can be stored briefly
Zone of proximal development
difference with what children can do alone & with help
Zygote
fertilized egg