Human Growth & Development - Chapter 4

Front 1

Myelinization

Back 1

myelinization is a process of covering nerve fibers with an insulating layer of fat cells that speeds the transmission of information along the nerve.

Myelinization continues throughout childhood and is not complete until adolescence.

Front 2

Preoperational Thought

Back 2

Preoperational Thought is Piaget's second stage of Cognitive Development. This stage extends from about age 2 to 7.

Since operations are collections of internalized symbols and ideas that allow a child to perform a task mentally, the preoperational child has not internalized these activities and thus must learn from hands-on, trial-and-error activities.

Front 3

Operations

Back 3

Operations are collections of internalized symbols and ideas that allow a child to perform a task mentally.

Front 4

Preoperational Thought Substages (2)

Back 4

1. Symbolic Function
2. Intuitive Thought

Front 5

Symbolic Function

Back 5

Symbolic Function is the first substage of the preoperational period (ages 2-4)

Through language acquisition and cognitive maturation, the child begins to internalize a few symbols.

Words, for example, can stand for objects that are not physically present.
(Their drawings are not bound by realism.)

Front 6

Egocentrism

Back 6

Egocentrism is the inability to understand the perspective of another person if it differs from one's own.

(egocentrism is one limitation of early preoperational thought).

Front 7

Animism

Back 7

Animism is the belief that inanimate objects have life.

Animism is one limitation of early preoperational thought.

Ex: The toddler may believe that cartoon characters are real or that the cookie jar jumped off the shelf by itself.

Ex: Asking a child a question over the telephone & receiving no verbal answer. Chances are, the child is nodding, not realizing you can't see the action.

Front 8

Intuitive Thought

Back 8

Intuitive Thought is the second substage of Preoperational Thought.

It occurs from about age 4 to 7.

Children in this substage use a primitive form of logic and are very inquisitive. It is the beginning of the "why" phase. Intuitive thought is characterized by Centration, lack of Conservation, and Transductive Reasoning.

Front 9

Centration

Back 9

Centration is a characteristic of Intuitive Thought

Centration refers to focusing on one characteristic of a problem, to the exclusion of others.

EX: Sadie was playing with an anatomically correct girl doll with very short hair. She insisted that the doll was a boy because of the hair, ignoring the more salient genital cues.

Front 10

Conservation

Back 10

Conservation is a characteristic of Intuitive Thought. (Young children lack conservation)

Conservation is the knowledge that certain attributes or situations do not change in spite of superficial rearrangements.

EX: Placing a wig of long hair on the doll might be enough for Sadie to state that the doll has become a girl. She does not yet realize that sex is a relatively stable property of human bodies, while hair & clothing are not.

Front 11

Transductive Reasoning

Back 11

Transductive Reasoning is a characteristic of Intuitive Thought.

It is reasoning from one particular fact to another.

Ex: Beau learned that his older sister, Fran, did not go to school in the summer. Then one day in July, Fran went to a soccer camp at school. Beau declared that it was no longer summer.

Front 12

Zone Of Proximal Development

Back 12

Vygotsky
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): refers to tasks that are too difficult for children to perform alone but can be done with the assistance of an adult or older peer.

The lower limit of the ZPD is what the child can do independently.

The upper limit is what the child can do only with a great deal of assistance.

Vygotsky believed that children need adult & older peer assistance to facilitate learning, because learning is an interpersonal activity.

Front 13

Initiative vs Shame & Guilt

Back 13

Erikson's Early Childhood Development

Erikson desribed the early childhood transition as initiative vs shame & Guilt

The child must learn to plan and carry out activities independently in order to achieve a positive sense of self worth. Children who are prevented from taking initiative learn to be ashamed of themselves or feel guilty.

Front 14

Sex

Back 14

Sex refers to the biological differences between girls & boys and women & men, including genitals, internal organs of reproduction, hormone ratios, and body strength and shape.

Front 15

Gender

Back 15

Gender refers to the social roles, behaviors, and activities assigned to people because of their sex.

Gender differs from one culture to another.

Front 16

4 Theories about how social & psychological factors influence gender.

Back 16

1. Identification Theory (Freud)
Boys-Oedipal Complex; Girls-Electra Complex
2. Social Learning Theory
Children learn gender roles by observing & imitating others. (reinforcement/Punishment)
3. Cognitive Development Theory (Piaget)
Children learn gender in the same way they learn other major concepts.
4. Gender Scheme Theory
At an early age children form a gender scheme.

Front 17

Identification Theory

Back 17

(Freud)

Oedipal Complex- Freud thought it resulted in a strong sense of self and morality for boys.

Electra Complex- Freud thought that penis envy was not as strong a motivator as castration anxiety, thus women develop with a weaker sense of self and morality (CROCK OF SHIT!!!!!)

Front 18

Social Learning Theory

Back 18

Proposes that children learn gender roles by observing and imitating others. The theory also incorporates reinforcement & punishment principles. If a child is punished for a gender-inappropriate activity or observes someone else being punished, s/he learns this behavior does not fit gender expectations.

Social Learning Theory implies that children are passive recipients of their environments.

Front 19

Cognitive Development Theory

Back 19

Proposes that children learn gender in the same way they learn other major concepts.

(Piagetian Thought)
Once children start to identify as female or male, they begin to organize their worlds around gender and describe activities & behaviors as girls' things or boys' things.

Front 20

Gender Scheme Theory

Back 20

Proposes that children at an early age form a gender scheme- a collection of related concepts that organize a person's perceptions.

A gender scheme organizes behaviors, mannerisms, activities, occupations, clothing styles, hairstyles, and a host of other human characteristics into male or female. It proposes that children (& adults) are internally motivated to conform to these gender norms. Focuses more on sociocultural ideas about gender than the child's cognitive development.

Front 21

Heteronomous

Back 21

(Piaget)
Children of ages 4 to 10 are in the heteronomous morality stage, where they consider rules as fixed and final and focus on the consequences of their action rather than intentions. They believe in immanent justice, the idea that if they do something wrong, they will eventually be punished for it.

Front 22

Autonomous Morality

Back 22

Children of ages 10 and above are in the stage of autonomous morality and recognize that rules can be broken or changed and that a person's intentions are important.

Front 23

Superego
(Morality)

Back 23

Freud also addressed moral feelings in his theory. He proposed that the superego, the structure of the personality that internalizes the rules and social prohibitions from the parents and society, begins to develop in early childhood. The superego controls the child's behavior through guilt.

Front 24

Diana Baumrind

Back 24

Diana Baumrind, in the 1970s, described several different kinds of parenting styles and their effects on children.

- Authoritarian
- Authoritative
- Neglectful
- Permissive

Front 25

Authoritarian

Back 25

Parenting Style (Diana Baumrind)
Authoritarian parents are cold, hostile, and punitive. They demand that the child obey, place limits on children, and do not allow for discussion of the rules.

Children of authoritarian parents are socially incompetent and anxious in social situations, have poor communication skills, and are more aggressive than other kids.

Front 26

Authoritative

Back 26

Parenting Style (Diana Baumrind)

Authortative parents set limits, but they are negotiable. They are warm and caring, and they encourage discussion. Their children are socially competent, self-reliant, and responsible.

Front 27

Neglectful

Back 27

Parenting Style (Diana Baumrind)

Neglectful parents pay little attention to their children and often know little about child rearing. They have children who lack self-control and are socially incompetent.

Front 28

Permissive

Back 28

Parenting Style (Diana Baumrind)

Permissive or indulgent parents are warm & caring, but do not put any restrictions on their children. Their children, too, lack self-control and social competence.

Front 29

Mildred Parten

Back 29

In the 1930s, Mildred Parten described six types of play activities:

1. Unoccupied Play
2. Solitary Play
3. Onlooker Play
4. Parallel Play
5. Associative Play
6. Cooperative Play

Front 30

Unoccupied Play

Back 30

Mildred Parten's 6 Types of Play Activities.

1. Unoccupied Play is when the child is standing in one place or performing random acts that do not seem to have any goal.

Front 31

Solitary Play

Back 31

Mildred Parten's 6 Types of Play Activities

2. Solitary Play is when the child plays alone and seems uninterested in the activities of others.

Common in early childhood period

Front 32

Onlooker Play

Back 32

Mildred Parten's 6 Types of Play Activities

3. Onlooker Play is when the child is actively engaged in watching others play.

Front 33

Parallel Play

Back 33

Mildred Parten's 6 Types of Play Activities

4. Parallel Play occurs when the child is playing alone, but with the same toys or in the same way as other children in the room.

Common in early childhood period.

Front 34

Associative Play

Back 34

Mildred Parten's 6 Types of Play Activities

5. Associative Play is when there is social interaction, but very little organization, as in chlidren all sharing the same box of crayons, but talking to each other more than actually coloring.

Common in early childhood period

Front 35

Cooperative Play

Back 35

Mildred Parten's 6 Types of Play Activities

6. Cooperative Play involves social interaction in a group with some organized goals or rules.

Rare in early childhood period.

Front 36

Functions of Play

Back 36

Functions of Play

- Sensorimotor play
- Pretend or symbolic play
- Social Play
- Constructive play
- Games

Front 37

Sensorimotor Play
(Function Of Play)

Back 37

Function of Play

Sensorimotor Play is a way to learn about the properties of objects, such as pouring water from one container to another or squishing mud between one's toes.

Front 38

Pretend Play/Symbolic Play
(Function Of Play)

Back 38

Function of Play

Pretend or Symbolic Play uses imagination and pretending. The child puts a towel over her shoulders and becomes a superhero, or a group of children designate one boy as the teacher and the other children as students in a game of "school".

Front 39

Social Play
(Function Of Play)

Back 39

Function of Play

Social Play is for the purpose of forming and/or maintaining relationships, as in boys wrestling or girls "grooming" each other.

Front 40

Constructive Play
(Function Of Play)

Back 40

Function of Play

Constructive Play refers to sensorimotor activities that result in a product or a solution to a problem, as in building a sand castle.

Front 41

Games
(Function Of Play)

Back 41

Function of Play

Games are activities that have rules and generally involve competition, as in "Capture The Flag" and "Monopoly".