Human Evolution

Front 1

Explain radiocarbon dating

Back 1

1. All living things are built from carbon-based organic matter

2. While alive, this carbon content exists as a mixture of two isotopes - 12C (stable) and 14C (radioactive) - maintained in constant proportions

3. When an organism dies, the proportion of radioactive 14C begins to decrease as it is no longer being replaced from the environment

4. The proportion of 14C remaining can be used to identify the age of a sample

5. Carbon-14 analysis is only an effective means of dating for sample up to ~60,000 years of age as it has a half life of only 5,730 years

Front 2

Explain potassium-argon dating

Back 2

1. Longer range dating can be accomplished by dating the rocks around a fossil to determine an age range (i.e. relative dating)

2. These dating techniques can only be undertaken on igneous rocks, not on the fossils themselves or the sedimentary rock in which they are found

3. 40K is released in lava from active volcanos and decays into 40Ar with a half life of 1,300 million years
Using the time of the volcanic eruption as a zero time point, the age of the strata in which the fossil was found can be determined

4. As any 40Ar would have been released during the eruption as a gas, levels of 40Ar in the strata provide an indication of relative age

Front 3

Define half-life

Back 3

The half life of a radioisotope is a measure of the time taken for the radioactivity to fall to half its original level

In other words, it is a measure of the time taken for half the atoms in a radioactive sample to decay

Front 4

Deduce the approximate age of materials based on a simple decay curve for a radioisotope

Back 4

Front 5

Describe the major anatomical features that define humans as primates

Back 5

Forward facing eyes (binocular vision)

Larger brains (improved cognition)

Opposable thumbs (capable of power grip and precision grip)

Finger pads with nails instead of claws (improved tactile sensitivity)

Skull adapted for upright posture (downward facing foramen magnum)

Rotating hand / forelimb (capable of pronation)

Flexible shoulder joints (shoulder blades on dorsal side of the thorax)

Front 6

Outline the trends illustrated by the fossils of Ardipithecus radius, Australopithecus including A. afarensis and A. africanus, and Homo including H. habilis, H. erectus, H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens

Back 6

Front 7

State 10 evolutionary trends

Back 7

1. More downward facing foramen magnum (caused by a transition to bipedalism)
2. S-shaped curvature of the spine (an artifact of an increasingly erect posture)
3. Lower and broader pelvis (bipedalism has changed the hominin birthing patterns and behaviours)
4. Change in relative lengths of arm and leg bones
5. Increased size of heel bone and alignment of big toe
6. Flatter faces, with reduced brow ridges and jaw protrusion
7. Larger cranial capacity with increased brain size and greater encephalisation (greater intellectual prowess)
8. Smaller teeth and jaws more V-shaped (reflecting changing dietary requirements with less emphasis on tough vegetation)
9. Marked reduction in body hair
10. Shift in muscle groups

Front 8

Illustrate a comparison between early and current hominin skeletons

Back 8

Front 9

True or False - At various stages in hominid evolution, several species may have coexisted

Back 9

True - Homo habilis may have co-existed with various species of Australopithicus
Homo neanderthalensis likely co-existed with Homo sapiens

Front 10

Discuss why the fossil record is incomplete

Back 10

Fossilisation is an exceptionally rare occurrence that requires an unusual combination of special conditions

Most living things tend to decompose rapidly (or be scavenged) following death

Fossilisation tends to favour hard body parts (bone, teeth, shells, etc.) and exposed fossils will soon be weathered / destroyed

Only a small percentage of fossils have been discovered - fossilisation favours species that were long-lived and widespread

Front 11

Discuss the significance of the incompleteness of the fossil record

Back 11

Individual fossils may not be representative of species (e.g. Homo floresiensis - 'Hobbit' man)

Very few complete skeletons have been discovered, and so paleoanthropology is an inductive (data-poor) science

Many conclusions have been drawn on limited data and are frequently re-interpreted in the light of new discoveries

Front 12

Discuss the correlation between the change in diet and increase in brain size during hominid evolution

Back 12

A change in habitat in Africa ~2.5 million years ago may have prompted the emergence of Homo species from forest to savannah

This necessitated a change of diet to include meat (more protein), which increased the skull capacity and brain size of hominids

Improved diet quality provided energy to support greater brain function and learning capacity (positive correlation)

Activities resulting from improved cognition (such as group hunting and cooking food) enabled hominids to eat a wider variety of food

Front 13

Illustrate the hominid skull development

Back 13

Front 14

What is genetic evolution?

Back 14

Genetic evolution involves physical changes in the human genome which become inherited (passed on through reproduction)

It involves the transfer of genes from one generation to the next (slow transfer)

Front 15

What is cultural evolution?

Back 15

Cultural evolution involves changes in human thinking and can be passed on by communication / social interaction

It involves the transfer of ideas / information either within or across many generations (fast transfer)

Front 16

Discuss the relative importance of genetic and cultural evolution in the recent evolution of humans

Back 16

Changes in genotype (genetic evolution via natural selection) have lead to cultural evolution in humans by promoting intelligent behaviour

Larger brain sizes have promoted increased learning capacity / greater cognitive ability

Prolonged gestations have promoted social interaction / family networks

Bipedalism has promoted extensive migration and improved socialisation tendencies

Shorter finger bones and reduced reliance on forelimbs for locomotion have promoted increased tool manipulation

Evolution of culture (e.g. art, science, language) has been more rapid and recent than genetic evolution (which requires many generations)

Further cultural evolution (through genetic engineering) may hasten changes in our genetic evolution

Certain products of cultural evolution (e.g. medicines) may reduce genetic evolution via natural selection

Other products of cultural evolution (e.g. pollution) may increase genetic evolution (increased mutagenic rate)