Human Development Test 1

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child development

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field of study devoted to understanding all changes that human beings experience throughout the life span

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physical development

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changes in size, appearance, functioning of systems, perceptual and motor capacities, physical health

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c. Cognitive development

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changes in intellectual abilities, attention, memory, academic and everyday knowledge, problem solving, imagination, creativity, language

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d. Emotional and social development-

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changes in emotional communication, self understanding, knowledge about other people, interpersonal skills, friendships, intimate relationships, moral reasoning and behavior

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theory

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a. Orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior

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a. Continuous and discontinuous

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1. Continuous development: development as a cumulative process
2. Discontinuous development: new and different ways of interpreting and responding to the world emerge at particular time periods
3. Difference-whether learning is always occurring or occurs in stages

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b. Nature and nurture

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1. Nature: genetic factors determine development and behavior
2. Nurture: environmental factors determine development and behavior
3. Difference-whether characteristics are inborn or taught

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c. One course of development or many

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1. Universal stages: children everywhere follow same sequence of development
2. Contexts: combinations of personal and environmental circumstances can result in different paths of development
3. Difference-whether it happens for everyone in same order or if nature can change it

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d. The individual: stable or open to change

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1. Disagreement among theorists about whether stable individual differences emerge early and persist due to heredity and early experience, or whether change is possible and likely if new experience supports it.

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a. Medieval times

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1. Childhood thought of as a different part of life—under age 7 or 8
2. Awareness of children as vulnerable beings
3. Sometimes possessed by the devil, sometimes innocent and close to angels

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b. Reformation

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1. Children born evil, needed to be civilized-original sin
2. Harsh child rearing practices
3. Child rearing one of most important obligations
4. Taught reasoning, tell right from wrong

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c. Enlightenment

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1. Emphasized ideals of human dignity and respect
2. John Locke-child a blank slate
i. Shaped by experience
ii. Parents can mold child any way they want
iii. Praise and approval as rewards not money or candy
3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
i. Children are noble savages, have sense of right and wrong, plan for orderly healthy growth

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Psychoanalytic pschosexual theory

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Freud
ID, ego, superego
Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

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ID

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Psychoanalytic pschosexual theory
Id - largest portion of the mind, is the source of basic biological needs and desires. (unconscious-basic impulses-sex and aggression, seeking immediate gratification, irrational, impulsive, infant cries), devil horns

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superego

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Psychoanalytic pschosexual theory
( Between ages of 3 and 6. All levels but mostly preconscious, ideals and morals, striving for perfection, incorporated from parents;becoming a person’s conscience, right and wrong), halo

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ego

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Psychoanalytic pschosexual theory
the conscious, rational part of personatlity, emerges in early infancy to redirect the id's impulses. (Mostly conscious, executive mediating between id impulses and superego inhibitions; testing reality; rational) referee.

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Oral:

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Psychoanalytic pschosexual theory
Birth-1yr- the new ego directs the babies sucking activities. If not met appropriately-develop thumb sucking, nail biting, pencil chewing, smoking. WEENING. Fixated in the state, constantly putting things in mouth.

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Anal:

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Psychoanalytic pschosexual theory
1-3 Enjoy holding and releasing urine and feces. Toilet training is a major issue. Trained before they are ready or make few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear in the form of extreme orderliness and cleanliness or disorder and messiness.

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Phallic:

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Psychoanalytic pschosexual theory
3-6- Id impulses transfer to the genitals, finds pleasure in genital stimulation. Oedipus conflict (boys), Electra conflict (girls). Sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent. To avoid punishment, they give up this desire and, instead adopt the same-sex parent’s characteristics and values, Superego is formed.

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Latency:

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Psychoanalytic pschosexual theory
6-11. Sexual instincts die down, and the superego develops further. The child acquires new social value from adults outside the family and play with same-sex peers outside the family.

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Genital-

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freud's psychoanalytic psychosexual theory
Adolescence. Puberty causes the sexual impulses of the phallic stage to reappear. If development has been successful during earlier stages, it leads to marriage, mature sexuality, and the birth and rearing of children.

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Psychosocial theory

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1. Added to Freud that individuals must be understood in context of their own culture, also adult stages of development (and shifted the focus away from sexual drives)
2. Basic trust vs. mistrust (infancy); autonomy vs. shame and doubt; initiative vs. guilt; industry vs. inferiority; identity vs. identity confusion (adolescence); intimacy vs. isolation; generativity vs. stagnation; integrity vs. despair (old age)

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Basic trust versus mistrust

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Psychosocial (Erikson)
(birth-1yr) From warm responsive care, infants gain a sense of trust or confidence, that the world is good. Mistrust occurs when infants have to wait too long for comfort and are handled harshly. (Oral)

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Autonomy versus shame and doubt

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Psychosocial (Erikson)
(1-3 yrs)- Using new mental and motor skills, children want to choose and decide for themselves, Autonomy is fostered when parents permit reasonable free choice and do not force or shame the child. (anal) Children love the word NO.

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Initiative versus guilt

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Psychosocial (Erikson)
(3-6 years) Through make-believe play, children experiment with the kind of person they can become. Initiative-a sense of ambition and responsibility-develops when parents support their child’s new sense of purpose and direction.

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Industry vs inferiority

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Psychosocial (Erikson)
6-11 years
At school, children develop the capacity to work and cooperate with others. Inferiority develops when negative experiences at home, at school, or with peers lead to feelings of incompetence.

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Identity versus identity confusion-

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Psychosocial (Erikson)
Adolescence. The adolescent tries to answer the questions: Who am I, and what is my place in society? By exploring values and vocational goals, the young person forms a personal identity. The negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles.

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Intimacy versus isolation-

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Psychosocial (Erikson)
Young Adulthood. Young people work on establishing intimate ties to others. Because of earlier disappointments, some individuals cannot form close relationships and remain isolated.

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Generativity vs. stagnation-

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Psychosocial (Erikson)
Middle Adulthood. Generativity means giving to the next generation through child rearing, caring for other people or productive work. The person who fails in these ways feels an absence of meaningful accomplishment.

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Ego integrity vs Despair-

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Psychosocial (Erikson)
Old Age. In this final stage, individuals reflect on the kind of person they have been. Integrity results from feeling that life was worth living as it happened. Old people who are dissatisfied with their lives fear death.

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behaviorism

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operant conditioning vs classical conditioning
social learning theory (social cognitive theory)

theory based on directly observable events between stimuli and responses.

-Continuous, Nurture, Contexts, Open to Change

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- Classical Conditioning

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behaviorism
Discovered by Pavlov (originally.) John Watson - applied this idea to children's behavior. Pavlov successfully taught dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by pairing it wth the presentation of food.

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neutral stimulus, reflexive response, etc. -

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behaviorism

When a neutral stimulus (white rat) is introduced with a stimulus created to get a response (loud noise), the reflexive response comes as a result of the (sound) stimulus. Originally the neutral stimulus (rat) can create no reflexive response, but the (sound) stimulus creates a natural reflexive response. When the stimuli are introduced together several times, the neutral stimulus(rat) can start to get the same reflexive response as the (sound) stimulus. The response to the neutral stimuli isn't natural or reflexive, it is conditioned over time.

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Operant Conditioning (Skinner) -

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behaviorism
The frequency of a child's behavior can be increased by following it with a wide variety of reinforcers, and behaviors can also be decreased through punishments.

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Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

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behaviorism
- modeling, observational learning, imitation, etc.
theory based on idea that imitation or observational learning is a powerful source of development. It stresses the importance of cognition-or thinking- in the development of a child. Children can grow gradually more selective in what they imitate based on their cognition. They watch feedback from their own actions and self-praise/self-blame of others actions and form their own personal standards for behavior. They also develop a sense of self-efficacy--or belief that their own abilities and characteristics will help them succeed.

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Modeling--

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behaviorism
otherwise known as imitation or observational learning. Children imitate those around them--parents, peers, etc.

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D. Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Piaget)-

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children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world.
- adaptation - assimilation - accommodation - equilibrium - developmental stages
sensorimotor
preoperational
concrete operation stage

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Assimilation-

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Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Piaget)
a process of fitting a new experience into existing schemas. Rearranging schemas to fit the environment. Cannot lead to true growth and experience.

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Accommodation-

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Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Piaget)
a process of changing existing schemas to fit external experiences. Change to fit.

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Equilibrium-

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Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Piaget)
a balance between internal structures and information they encounter in their everyday world.

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Sensorimotor

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Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Piaget)
(Birth-2 years)

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Preoperational

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Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Piaget)
(2-7 years) -

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Concrete operation stage

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Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Piaget)
(7-11 years)

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Formal operational

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Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Piaget)
(11 years and on)

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E. Information Processing Theory

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the human mind might also be viewed as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows. flow charts are often used.
nurture, continuous learning, open to change, universal components but in context

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F. Ethology

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(darwin) natural selection, survival of the fittest, adaptability, critical & sensitive periods

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Ethology-Darwin.

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An approach concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history. Discontinuous, universal, nature, stable

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Survival of the fittest-

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Certain species survive in particular parts of the world because they have characteristics that fit with, or are adapted to, their surroundings. Other species die off because they are not as well-suited to their environments. Individuals within a specie who best meet the environments' survival requirements live long enough to reproduce and pass their more beneficial characteristic to future generations.

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Critical Period:

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Limited time span during which the child is biologically perpared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs the support of an appropriately stimulating environment. Gotta happen at this age or it never will.

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Sensitive Period:

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A time span that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences. EX: nutrition in childhood

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G. Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner) -

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Microsystems, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, Chronosystem

Views the child as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment. Bronfenbrenner has recently called it a BIOECOLOGICAL model, recognizing that biological dispositions join with these environmental forces to mold development. Continuous, stability is the goal, nurture.

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Microsystems-

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Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)

he activities and interaction patterns in the child’s immediate surroundings. Child is IN THIS SYSTEM. (school, family, day care) Every member of the family is connected.

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Mesosystems-

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Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)
connections between Microsystems (parent teacher conference, parental help with homework)

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Exosystem-

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Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)
social settings that do not contain the child but that affect his/her experiences in immediate settings (parents’ work place, community organizations)

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Macrosystem-

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Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)
consists of values, laws, customs, and resources of a particular culture that influence experiences and interactions at inner levels of the environment ( views about women and children, day care requirements)

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Chronosystem-

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Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)
aspect of time; temporal changes in children’s environments, which produce new conditions that affect development. These changes can be imposed externally or arise from within the organism, since children select, modify, and create many of their own settings and experiences (differently than another, moving). TIME.

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Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky)

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focuses on how culture--the values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group--is transmited to the next generation. According to Vygotsky, social interaction-- in particular, cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society--is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving the make up a community's culture. -

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role of culture,

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vygotsky believed that as adults and more expert peers help children master CULTURALLY meaningful activities, the communication between them becomes part of children's thinking. As children internalize the features of these dialogues, they can use the language within them to guide their own though and actions and to acquire new skills. scaffolding
Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky)

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John Locke -

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-Tabula rasa, blank state, characters shaped by experience. continuous, nurture

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Jean Rousseau -

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-noble savages-naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong with an innate plan for orderly healthy growth, Discontinuous, stage-wise, nature

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7. Know some of indicators of Child Health and Well Being, including Health care and infant death rate in the US

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a. Pages 32 and 33. US doesn’t look very good compared to other countries.
b. 6% of children live in deep poverty; 11% of children have no health insurance
c. Infant death rate: 6.6 infants per 1000 births (2007)

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a. Correlation design

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i. Does not alter participant's experiences
ii. Examines relationships between variables
iii. Spurrial correlation-two things seem to be cause and effect but really aren't, third variable involved
1. Ex: crime and ice cream sales
iv. Correlation does not mean causation
v. Correlation coefficient
1. Number from +1.00 to -1.00
2. Magnitude=strength of relationship
3. Sign = direction of relationship
a. + and + means they go in same direction, positive
i. As temperature goes up, crime goes up
b. + and – means they go in opposite directions, negative
i. As TV viewing goes up, GPA goes down

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b. Experimental Design

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i. A research design in which the investigator randomly assigns participants to treatment conditions. Permits inferences about cause and effects

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1. Independent variable

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variable manipulated by the researcher in an experiment by randomly assigning participants to treatment conditions

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2. Dependent variable

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variable the researcher expects to be influenced by the independent variable in an experiment

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3. Random assignment

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unbiased procedure for assigning participants to treatment groups, such as drawing numbers out of a hat or flipping a coin. Increases the chances that participants' characteristics will be equally distributed across treatment conditions in an experiment

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4. Matching

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a procedure for assigning participants with similar characteristic in equal numbers to treatment conditions in an experiment. Ensures the group will be equivalent on factors likely to distort the results

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c. Modified experimental designs

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field experiments, natural experiments, laboratory experiment

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i. Field experiments-

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participants are randomly assigned to treatment conditions in natural settings

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ii. Natural (or quasi) experiments-

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research design in which the investigator studies already existing treatments in natural settings by selecting groups of participants with similar characteristics

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iii. Laboratory experiment-

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experiment in the lab, maximum possible control over treatment conditions

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d. Longitudinal design

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i. Research design where one group of participants is studied repeatedly at different ages

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disadvantages of longitudinal design

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1. Biased sampling-failure to select participants who are representative of population of interest in a study
2. Selective attrition-selective loss of participants
3. Practice effects-changes in participant’s natural responses as a result of repeated testing
4. Cohort effects-effects of cultural history change on accuracy finding

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e. Cross sectional design

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i. Participants of different ages studied at the same point in time

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different types of research methods

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self reports, clinical interview, structured, systematic observation, outside informants, psychophysiological methods, clinical methods, ethnography

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a. Self reports

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i. People have different perspectives, their own "ruler"
ii. Can get information quickly for large groups

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b. Clinical interview-

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a method in which the researcher uses flexible, open-ended questions to probe for the participant's point of view
i. Not really used in child development, children given different questions, not reliable on a large scale

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c. Structured interview-

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a method in which the researcher asks each participant the same questions in the same way

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systematic observation

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Natural observation, Structured observations

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4. Limitations of systematic observation

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1. Observer influence-tendency of participants to react to the presence of an observer and behave in unnatural ways
a. Children under the age of 8 too egocentric to be changed by observers
2. Observer bias-tendency of observers who are aware of the purpose of a study to see and record what is expected rather than participants' actual behavior

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1. Specimen record -

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An observational procedure in which the researcher records a description of the participant’s entire stream of behavior for a specified time period.

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2. Event sampling -

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An observational procedure in which the researcher records all instances of a particular behavior during a specified time period.

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3. Time sampling -

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An observational procedure in which the researcher records whether or not certain behaviors occur during a sample of short time intervals.

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2. Natural observation-

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method in which the researcher goes into the natural environment to observe the behavior of interest

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3. Structured observations-

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method in which the researcher sets up a situation that evokes the behavior of interest and observes it in a laboratory

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outside informants

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1. Parents-may not want to participate, bias to show off kid
2. Teachers-may not pay as much attention to each kid or may have bias (older sibling teacher had)
3. Peers-kids may not be able to understand as well, reading problems

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f. Psychophysiological methods

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1. Methods that measure the relationship between physiological processes and behavior. Among the most common are measures of autonomic nervous system activity (such as heart rate, respiration, and stress hormone levels) and measures of brain functioning (such as the electroencephalogram [EEG], event-related potentials [ERPs], and functional magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]).

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g. Clinical method

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case study
1. Researcher attempts to understand the unique individual child by coming interview data, observations, test scores, sometimes psycholphysiological measures

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ethnography

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1. Researcher attempts to understand the values and social processes of a culture or a distinct social group by living with its members and taking field notes for an extended period

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sound research

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Reliability (can perform it multiple times and get the same results) and validity (measures what you’re looking for). Follow scientific method (hypothesis, controlling for variables, followed procedure)

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children's rights

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Rights include: protection from harm (physical or psychological. Risks-vs-benefits ratio); informed consent (explanation given to children as well as to parents); privacy (right to conceal identity on everything); knowledge of results; beneficial treatments (children in control groups have right to alternative beneficial treatments if available)
b. Age is also a concern, as well as individual characteristics, deception and concealment (debriefing – full account and justification for deception after research finished)

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hypothesis

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a. prediction about behavior drawn from a theory

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down syndrome causes, description

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a. Most common chromosomal disorder
b. Failure of the 21st pair of chromosomes to separate in meiosis—3 chromosomes not 2
c. Mental retardation, memory and speech problems, limited vocabulary, slow motor development
d. Short stocky build, flat face, protruding tongue, almond eyes
e. Risk of having down syndrome child increases with age

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a. Amniocentesis

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i. Needle inserted through abs to obtain a sample of fluid
ii. Test for genetic defects
iii. Performed by 14th week
iv. Miscarriage

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b. Chorionic villus sampling

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i. Can be used early in pregnancy- 9 weeks
ii. Tube inserted into uterus, or needle through abs
iii. Tissue taken from end of chorionic villi
iv. Miscarriage, limb deformities earlier the procedure

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c. Fetoscopy

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i. Tube with light inserted into uterus
ii. Sample of blood obtained, can diagnose blood disorders, neural defects
iii. Typically 15-18 weeks, can be as early as 5 weeks
iv. miscarriage

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d. Ultrasound

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i. Sound waves beamed at uterus, translated into a picture
ii. Shows size, shape and placement of fetus
iii. Helps other diagnostic methods
iv. After 5 times, may increase chance of low birth weight

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e. Maternal blood analysis

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i. 2nd month of pregnancy, fetus’ cells enter mom’s bloodstream
ii. Alpha-fetoprotein may show kidney disease, bad closure of esophagus or neural tube defects
iii. Isolated cells can be examined for genetic defects

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f. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis

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i. After invitro fertilization and duplication of zygote into 8-10 cells, 1-2 are taken and examined
ii. If sample is free of genetic disorders is fertilized ovum implanted

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a. Teratogens-

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environmental agent that causes damage during prenatal periods

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i. Prescription and nonprescription drugs

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1. Can cause deformities
2. Lower intelligence
3. Children of children had cancer, malformations of vagina, uterus, testes infertility
4. Damage to organism
a. Abnormalities of eye, ear, skull, brain, heart, nervous system, immune system
5. Low birth weight, miscarriage, newborn withdrawal symptoms

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ii. Illegal drugs

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1. Prematurity, low birth weight, physical defects, breathing difficulties, death at or around time of birth
2. Born drug addicted
a. Feverish, irritable and have trouble sleeping, cries are shrill and piercing
b. Moms who care for these babies have bad circumstances, can’t care for baby well
3. Slow motor development, can be overcome, not always
4. Difficult to find precise damage from illegal drugs

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tobacco

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1. Low birth weight, miscarriage, prematurity, impaired heart rate, impaired, breathing during sleep, asthma, cancer later in childhood
2. More mom smokes, greater child will be affected
3. Behavioral abnormalities-less attentive to sounds, more muscle tension, more excitable when touched and stimulated, persistent crying
4. Nicotine constricts blood vessels, lessens blood flow, placenta to grow abnormally
a. Doesn’t gain weight normally

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alcohol

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1. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
a. Slow physical growth
b. Facial abnormalities (short eye openings, thin upper lip, indention running from bottom of nose to center of upper lip),
c. Brain injury (small head, impairment in 3 areas of functioning)
d. Other defects-of ears, eyes, nose, throat, heart, genitals, urinary tract or immune system
2. Partial FAS
a. 2 of facial abnormalities
b. Brain injury
c. Mothers drank alcohol in smaller quantities, defects vary depending on exposure
3. Alcohol related neuro-developmental disorder
a. 3 areas of mental functioning impaired
b. Typical physical growth, no facial abnormalities
4. Interferes with cell duplication, abnormalities in brain structures
5. Body uses oxygen to metabolize alcohol, takes away oxygen
6. No amount of alcohol is safe

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radiation

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1. Abnormalities, mutation, damaged DNA
2. Increase likelihood of childhood cancer
3. Lower intelligence test scores, language and emotional disorders

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vi. Environmental pollution

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1. Mercury-physical deformities, mental retardation, abnormal speech, uncoordinated movements, brain damage
2. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)-low birth weight, smaller heads, more intense reactions to stress, persisting attention and memory difficulties, lower intelligence test scores
3. Lead-prematurity, low birth weight, brain damage, physical defects

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rubell

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a. Defects, low birth weight, hearing loss, bone defects

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2. HIV and AIDS

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a. Rampant in developing countries
b. Brain damage, loss in brain weight, delayed motor development
c. HIV mothers pass on disease 20-30% of the time

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b. Other Maternal factors

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i. Exercise-don't overdo it
ii. Nutrition-be wise, see a doctor early, vitamins, supplements
iii. Emotional stress-can impede growth and development of the fetus
iv. Maternal age-does not impact ability to carry a child
1. Impacts teratogens, nutrition, medical care

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b. Preterm vs. small-for-date

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preterm (born early -> born small)
small for date (less than expected weight for age -> born small)
The latter usually has more problems. Affects parental caregiving, worsening the problem; “kangaroo care” shown to be very beneficial, with more skin-to-skin contact that helps undersized infants recover faster.

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c. Low birth weight + economic disadvantage

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= really bad (need intensive, long-term intervention)

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a. Prenatal development stages

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zygote, embryo, fetus

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zygote

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(conception – 2 weeks): multiplying cells, placenta and umbilical cord begin to form. Blastocyst burrows into uterine lining (implantation)

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ii. Embryo

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(implantation – 8th week): most rapid changes happen – groundwork for body structures and internal organs. At most risk from teratogens

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iii. Fetus

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(9th week – end of pregnancy): age of viability (22-26 weeks old). Increases in organization and functioning of organs. Most responsive to external stimuli

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stages of labor

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contractions cause dilation, delivery of baby, birth of the placenta

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i. Contractions cause dilation (widening) and effacement (thinning) of the cervix.

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Longest stage (12-14 hours with first birth)

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ii. Delivery of the baby –

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uterus contracts, and mother uses abdominal muscles (50 min for first birth)

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iii. Birth of the placenta –

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few more contractions over 5-10 mins

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genetic code

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a. DNA unzips, is duplicated to complement the original strand
b. In sex cell formation (gametes, meiosis), crossing over occurs during cell division for more genetic variety. More genetic diversity when egg and sperm are combined

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infant mortality rate

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a. 6.6 infants per 1000 births; ranks 26th out of 29 countries (bad)