Human Development

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study of cognitive development by understanding how people respond in a learning situation- based on the idea that babies are born to learn.

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Behaviorist Approach

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study of development by using standarized tests. These instruments are designed to test aspects of intelligence at various stages

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Psychometric Approach

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looks at changes, or stages, in the quality of cognitive functioning. It is concerned with how the mind structures its activites and adapts to the environment

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Piegetian Approach

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Learning based on associating a stimulus that doe snot ordinarily elicit a particular response with another stimulus that does elecit the response.

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Classical Conditioning

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learning based on reinforcement or punishment

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Operant conditioning

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behavior that is goal oriented and adaptive to circumstances and conditions of life

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Intelligent Behavior

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Psychometric tests that seek to measure intelligence by comparing a test taker's performance with standardized norms.

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intelligence quotient tests

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standardized test of infants development

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Bayley Scales of infant and toddler development

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instrument to measure the influence of the home environment on children's cognitive growth.

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Home observation for measurement of the environment
(HOME)

Front 10

Systematic process of providing services to help families meet young children's developmental needs

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Early Intervention

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In Piaget's theory, first stage in cognitive development, during which infants learn through sense and motor activity.,

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Sensorimotor Stage

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Piaget's term to describe how we organize information. This includes definitions, appropriate behaviors etc.
These develop thoughout life-but are important to a good cognitive foundation. As a person encounters new information, that is added to the ____ by two porcesses

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Schemes

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Piaget's term for processes by which an infant learns to reproduce desired occurrences originally discovered by enhance.

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Circular reactions

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Piaget's term for capacity to store mental images or symbols of objects and events

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Representational ability

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Imitation with parts of one's body that one cannot see.

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Invisible imitation

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Imitation with parts of one's body that one can see.

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Visible imitation

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Piaget's term for reproduction of an observed behavior after the passage of time by calling up a stored symbol of it

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Deferred imitation

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Research method in which infants or toddlers are induced to imitate a specific series of actions they have seen but not neceassily done before.

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Elicited imitation

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Piaget's term for the understanding that a person or object still exists when out of sight.

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Object performance

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Proposal that children under the age of 3 have difficulty grasping spatial relationships because of the need to keep more than one mental representation in mind at the same time.

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Dual representation hypothesis

Front 21

focuses on the processes involved in perception, learning, memory, and problem solving. It seeks to discover what people do with information from the time they encounter it until they use it.

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Informational-processing approach

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approach to the study of cognitive development that links brain processes with cognitive ones

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Cognitive neuroscience approach

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approach to the study of cognitive development by focusing on environmental influences, particularly parents and other caregivers.

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Social contextual approach

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Type of learning in which familiarity with a stimulus reduces, slows, or stops a response

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Habituation

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increases in responsiveness after presentation of a new stimulus

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Dis habituation

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increases responsiveness after presentation of a new stimulus

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Dis habituation

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tendency of infants to spend more time looking at one sight than another.

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Visual Preference

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ability to distinguish a familiar visual stimulus from an unfamiliar one when shown both at the same time

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Visual recognition memory

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ability to use information gained by one sense to guide another.

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Cross-model transfer

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research method in which dishabituation to a stimulus that conflicts with experience is taken as evidence that an infant recognizes the new stimulus as surpriseing.

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Violation of expectations

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intentional and conscious memory, generally of facts, names and events

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Explicit memory

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unconscious recall, generally of habits and skills; sometimes called procedural memory.

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Implicit memory

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short-term storage of information being actively processed

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Working memory

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participation of an adult in a child's activity in a manner that helps structure the activity and to bring the child's understnding of it closer to that of the adult.

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Guided participation

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communication system based on words and grammar

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Language

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forerunner of linguistic speech: utterance of sounds that are not words. Including crying, cooing, babbling, and accidental and delierate imitation of sounds without understanding their meaning.

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Prelinguistic Speech

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verbal expression designed to convey meaning

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linguistic speech

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single word that conveys a complete thought.

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holophrase

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early form of sentence use consisting of only a few essential words

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telegraphic speech

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rules for forming sentences in a particular language

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syntax

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rules for forming sentences in a particular language

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Syntax

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theory that human beings have an inborn capacity for language acquisition

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Nativism

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ability to read and write

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Literacy

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In Chomsky's terminology, an inborn mechanism that enables children to infer linguistic rules from the language they hear

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Language acquisition device (LAD)

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use of elements of two languages, sometimes in the same utterance, by young children in households where both languages are spoken

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Code mixing

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changing one's speech to match the situation, as in people who are biligual

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Code switching

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form of speech often used in talking to babies or toddlers; includes slow, simplified speech, a high pitched tone, exaggerated vowel sound, short words and sentences, and much repetition; also called parentese

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child-directed speech (CDS)

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Chapter

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6

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subjective reactions to experience that are associated with physiological and behavioral changes

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Emotions

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emotions such as embarrassment, empathy, and envy, that depend on self-awareness.

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Self-conscious emotions

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realization that one's existence and functioning are separated from those of other people and things.

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Self awareness

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emotions, such as pride, shame, and guilt, that depend on both self awareness and knowledge or socially accepted standards of behavior

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Self evaluative emotions

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ability to "put oneself in another person's place and feel what the other person feels

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Empathy

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ability to understand that other people have mental states and to gauge their feelings and intentions

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Social Cognition

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children with a generally happy temperament, regular biological rhythms and intense emotional responses

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"easy" children

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children with irritable temperament, and irregular biological rhythms and intense emotional responses

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"difficult" children

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children whose temperament is generally mild but who are hesitant about accepting new experience.

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"slow-to-warm up" children

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appropriateness of environmental demands and constraints to a child's temperament

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goodness to fit

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significance of being male or female

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Gender

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socialization process b which children, at an early age learn appropriate gender roles.

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Gender-typing

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Erikson first crisis in psychosocial development in which infants developed a sense of the reliability of people and objects

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Basic trust verses basic mistrust

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reciprocal, enduring tie between infants and caregiver each of whom contributes to the quality of the relationship

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Attachment

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laboratory technique used to study infant attachment

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Strange situation

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Pattern in which an infant cries or protests when the primary caregiver leaves and actively seeks out the caregiver upon his or her attachment

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Secure attachment

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Pattern in which an infant rarely cries when separated from the primary caregiver and avoids contact upon his or her return

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Avoid ant attachment

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Pattern in which an infant after separation from the primary caregiver who's contradictory behaviors upon his or her result

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Disorganized disoriented attachment

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wariness of strange people and places shown by some infants during the second half of the first year

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Stranger anxiety

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distress shown by someone, typically an infant when a familiar caregiver leaves.

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Separation anxiety

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Process by which infant and caregiver communicate emotional states to each other and respond appropriately

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Mutual regulation

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research procedure used to measure mutual regulation in infants 2 to 9 months old

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"still-face" paradigm

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understanding an ambiguous situation by seeking out another person's perception of it

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Social referencing

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sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one's abilities and traits.

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Self-concept

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sense of one's own capability to master challenges and achieve goals

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Self efficacy

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Erickson's second stage in psychosocial development, in which children achieve a balance between self-determination and control by others

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Autonomy versus shame and doubt

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Development of habits, skills, values, and motives shared by responsible productive members of a society

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Socialization

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During socialization, process by which children accept societal standards of conduct as their own.

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Internalization

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a person's independent control of behavior to conform to understood social expectations

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Self-regulation

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Internal standards of behavior which usually control one's conduct and produce emotional discomfort when violated

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Conscience

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Kochanska's term for a whole hearted obedience of a parent's orders without reminders or lapses.

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Committed compliance

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Kochanska's term for obedience of a parent's orders only in the presence of signs of ongoing parental control.

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Situational compliance

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action taken deliberately to endanger another person, involving potential bodily injury

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Physical abuse

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failure to meet a dependent's basic needs

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Neglect

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Kochanska's term for obedience for a parent's orders only in the presence of signs of ongoing parental control

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Situational compliance

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action taken deliberately to endanger another person, involving potential bodily injury

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Physical Abuse

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failure to meet a dependent's basic needs

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Neglect

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Physically or psychologically harmful sexual activity, or any sexual activity or any sexual activity involving a child and an older person

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Sexual abuse

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action or inaction that may cause behavioral cognitive, emotional, or mental disorders

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Emotional maltreatment

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1 of 2 schemes
when new experiences fit into existing scheme. The addition of this new information enriches the scheme or adopt an entirely new scheme to accommodate this new information

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Assimilation

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when new information does NOT fit into the existing scheme. The person must then change the scheme or adopt an am emtore;y new scheme to accommodate this new information

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Accommodation

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inability to remember events which occurred during the first 3 years of life. One theory is that this is due to underdeveloped brain system. Using behavrioral techniques, researchers have found that infants process infroamtion similaryly to adults except their retention interval is _____

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Infantile Amensa

Significantly less

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behavior which is goal-oriented and adaptive to circumstances and conditions of life

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Intelligent behavior

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tests can be difficult to administer in non-verbal infants. Cannot assess cognitive development or intelligence per se, but rather can give tests to groups of infants and assess “typical” development. Thus the tests can only measure whether or not an infant is developing appropriately

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IQ intelligent quotient

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Developmental ____________for Infants and Toddlers

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Testing

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Measures current development, not future functioning. Scores are compared to a normative sample
It is designed to assess a child’s strengths and weaknesses in five developmental areas:

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Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development

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5 developmental areas of Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development

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Cognitive
Language
Motor
Social-Emotional
Adaptive

Front 96

rates resources and atmosphere in a child’s home – It rates several things including parental responsiveness, number of books in home, presence of educational playthings
Results of Studies Using HOME have identified six aspects of the early home environment that encourage and facilitate cognitive development.

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HOME
Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment

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6 aspects of the early home environment that encourage and facilitate cognitive development 1st

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Encouragement to explore the environment

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HOME 2

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Mentoring in basic cognitive skills

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home 3

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Celebration of Accomplishment

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home 4

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Guidance in Practice and Explaining Skills

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home 5

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Protection from inappropriate punishment, teasing or Disapproval for mistakes or unintended consequences for trying new skills

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home 6

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stimulation of language

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Assessing IQ scores during developmental stages a positive correlation has been identified between IQ scores and SES Of Interest _____ = _____

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low SES = low IQ

low SES= low IQ with this information psychologists can identify children at-risk.

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involvement in early stages of a child’s life to help meet developmental needs. These can include such things as therapy and parental education

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Early Intervention

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aspects of the home environment that aid in assuring the child develops normally – includes such things as guiding developmental experiences, appropriate stimulation, protection from undue/inappropriate punishment. These are addressed in Early Intervention

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Developmental Priming Mechanisms

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Piagetian Approach

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Schemes
Assimilation
Accommodation
Disequilibrium
Equilibrium

Front 107

Piaget’s term to describe how we organize information. This includes definitions, appropriate behaviors etc.

Back 107

Schemes.

Front 108

These develop throughout life – but are important to a good cognitive foundation. As a person encounters new information, that is added to the schemes by two processes
__________________: when new experiences fit into the existing scheme. The addition of this new information enriches the scheme and broadens the child’s cognitive base

Back 108

Assimilation

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when new information does NOT fit into the existing scheme. The person must then change the scheme or adopt an entirely new scheme to accommodate this new information

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Accommodation

Front 110

a state where new information or situation is encountered which does not make sense. This is an opportunity for learning. As humans we do not like to be in this state, thus we are motivated to find a solution.

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Disequilibrium

Front 111

a state of harmony in which the current information or situation fit into the person’s cognitive existence

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Equilibrium

Front 112

Piaget also proposed that as humans develop cognitively they progress through various stages. These stages reflect the quality of cognitive ability in which the person operates

________________Stage – first stage of cognitive ability.

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Sensorimotor

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Ages 0-2. Infants learn through their senses and motor skills. Consists of six ____________

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Substances

Front 114

a cognitive ability possessed by infants whereby they learn to reproduce behaviors which produce a desired effect. These may initially have been discovered accidentally but then become integrated into the baby’s behavior. Physical develop which accompanies these substages contribute to their exploration

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Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary

Circular Reactions

Front 115

1. Substage 1 – (Birth to 1 month): Use of ______________– during this stage infants use their reflexes and gain some control over them

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Reflexes

Front 116

2. Substage 2 - (1-4 months):____________________– infants begin to repeat pleasurable behaviors which at first may have occurred by accident (such as thumb sucking, play with toes etc). Because this is a good sensation they repeat it. Primary because these activities center on their own body

Back 116

Primary circular

Front 117

3. Substage 3 – (4-8 months):____________________– infants become more aware of their environment and begin to interact with it (such as shaking a toy and liking the response). Secondary because it involves things outside of themselves

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Secondary Circular

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4. Substage 4 – (8-12 months):____________________– behavior continues with interesting things and it becomes more deliberate and intentional. They may express a preference for certain toys or other stimuli and use other abilities to gain what they want

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coordination circular

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5. Substage 5 – (12-18 months):_________________– behavior becomes more coordinated and they try different things in their environment such as varying activities with toys and use trial and error

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teriary circulation

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6. Substage 6 – (18-24 months):____________________– A milestone of this substage is the infant’s ability to represent things mentally. This allows them to explore things not immediately present. They are beginning to communicate with gestures and even words. They are able to pretend

Back 120

Mental combinations

Front 121

term used to describe the infant's ability to store mental images for objects and experiences

Back 121

Representational Ability

Front 122

to copy or mimic

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Imitation

Front 123

imitation with parts of one's body that cannot see (such as the mouth)

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Invisible imitation

Front 124

imitation with parts of one's body that you can see (hands/feet etc)

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Visible imitation

Front 125

imitating a behavior after time has elapsed since the baby saw the behavior initially

Back 125

Deferred Imitation

Front 126

when a baby imitates a behavior that may have seen, but never imitated preiously-imitation is based on explanation only-more reliable in the second year

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Elicited Imitation

Front 127

Piaget's idea that a baby understands that objects continue to exist when hidden

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Object Permanence

Front 128

objects have their own independent existence as a separate entity. This also applies to people in their lives.

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Object Concept

Front 129

a game played with babies and their caretakers. It is played across many cultures. Accoring to psychologists it serves various purposes

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Peek-a-boo

Helps reduce anxiety when mom "disappears"
helps develop object permanence

Front 130

a major precursor to language-is still in development in senorimotor stage

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Symbolic Development

Front 131

the ability to understand the nature of pictures-that they are symbols or presentations of something

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Pictorial competence

Front 132

the ability to understand and mentally represent both a picture and the object it represents- this develops over time- usually not fully developed until age 3

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Dual representation hypothesis

Front 133

study of infant behavior based no processes involved in perception, learning, memory, and problem solving

Back 133

Information processing approach to development

Front 134

a simple type of learning whereby the longer something is around and becomes more familiar – the less time is spent attending to it. As infants habituate, they transform the novel into the familiar

Back 134

Habituation

Front 135

when a new stimulus is presented the infant will attend to it more readily. This is indicated in an infant when they stop sucking or stop their eye movements and focus on the new stimulus for a longer period of time
If the stimulus continues to be presented, then habituation will eventually occur – hence, learning

Back 135

Disabituation

Front 136

an observation of dishabituation to a stimulus that conflicts with experience. This is taken as evidence that the new stimulus is surprising – thus the child had stored an ____________for that object.

Back 136

Violation of expectations

expectations

Front 137

when babies show a partiality to one sight over another. For example: When babies are less than 2 days only they prefer faces over other objects

Back 137

Visual Preference

Front 138

Memory – the baby’s ability to distinguish familiar from unfamiliar visual stimuli. Infants will look longer at the novel stimuli

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Visual Recognition Memory

Front 139

ability to transfer information gained in one sense to guide another (being able to identify objects with eyes after feeling them with hands)

Back 139

Cross Mental transfer

Front 140

develops around 1 year – babies look or point in the same direction as the adult with whom they are interacting. The development of this skill leads to social interaction, language acquisition and beginning to understand mental states of others

Back 140

Joint attention

Front 141

There are only weak correlations of infants’ developmental test scores and IQ scores later. However, some studies have shown that when children are efficient at taking in and interpreting sensory information from birth – this characteristic scores well on IQ tests.
Various Information Processing Theories have used this approach to suggest an earlier occurrence of cognitive abilities.

Back 141

information processing and intelligence

Front 142

Research by Renee’ Baillargeon (1991) found evidence that it may exist in infants as young as 3 ½ months

Back 142

object permanent

Front 143

 Understanding __________– Piaget proposed that this is not possible until at least the 6th substage when they first use symbols. Karen Wynn (1992-2000) Used Mickey Mouse dolls behind a screen and added and took some away – without the infant being able to see – Research concluded if the infant showed surprise that would be evidence that they could understand numbers.

Back 143

numbers

Front 144

Piaget proposes this ability begins around 4-6 months and not solidified until 1 year
Mandler (1998) experimented by showing events with no apparent cause and those that had a cause to infants. They displayed a violation-of-expectations in the events that did not have a cause

Back 144

Causality

Front 145

_____ Neuroscience Approach

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Cognitive

Front 146

effortful memory-contains facts, names, dates, etc-things you must concentrate on in order to learn

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Explicit Memory

Front 147

does not require conscious effort. INcludes time/space elements and skills such as riding a bike etc. This memory develops earlier and faster than explicit memory

Back 147

Implicit Memory

Front 148

a short-term storage area of the brain-holds materials the brain is actively working with at the time.

Back 148

Working memory

Front 149

Early infant stimulation fosters ________________development and lays the groundwork for memory. Thus reiterating the importance for creating positive and appropriate experiences

Back 149

neurological

Front 150

an approach to development with an emphasis on environment and in particular caregivers

Back 150

social context approach

Front 151

interaction of child and adult. As an infant interacts with adults the adult needs to structure activities to present to the child and to enhance cognitive development. The adult is involved in their play and guide them through questions and praise and excitement
 Helps ____________level of knowledge between adult and child
 ________________Differences
– US children engage in more play activities
– Guatemalan children engage in more work activities

Back 151

Guided participation

bridge
cultural

Front 152

communication system based on word, grammar, and cognitive development
Its appearance is crucial to cognitive development
Multiple systems (motor skills, cognitive, neurological, social etc.) all come together for its formation

Back 152

Language

Front 153

The ability to read and write

Back 153

literacy

Front 154

Language follows a specific system of development – (See Table 5-4 for complete list)
 _____________– In newborns – their first and only means of communication
 _________– At around 6-8 weeks, babies will begin repeating vowel sounds – ‘ahhhh’
 _____________– Around 6-10 months babies begin repeating consonant sounds – ‘ma-ma-ma’

Back 154

crying
cooing
babbling

Front 155

precursor to linguistic speech – sounds that may be imitations of words/sounds the baby hears, but the child does not necessarily understand their meaning
By 6 months, babies learn to recognize basic sounds of their native language - phonemes

Back 155

Prelinguistic Speech

Front 156

another aspect of communication – occurs after babbling stage and learning gestures helps babies learn to talk – another step in communicatioin

Back 156

Gestures

Front 157

 ________________ __________ Gestures: includes waving bye, bye, shake head no/yes etc.

Back 157

Conventional Social Gestures

Front 158

 __________________Gestures: holding an empty cup to mouth to show that they want a drink, or holding up arms to indicate they want to be picked up

Back 158

Representational Gestures

Front 159

 _________________Gestures: a type of imitation such as blowing to mean “hot” or sniffing to mean “flower”

Back 159

Symbolic gestures

Front 160

____________________Speech – communication with the use of actual words. It is verbal expression that conveys meaning and begins around10-14 months of age

Back 160

Linguistic Speech

Front 161

 _______________- Simple syllables or one-word sentences that have complete meanings. For example:‘Da’ could mean “Where is Daddy?”
 ‘_________________- occurs at 16-24 months
 _____________Speech – onset of 2-word combination – emerges when vocabulary is over 200 words - No do’ means “Do not do that”

Competence in syntax gradually increases with language use and interaction

Back 161

Holophrase

Naming explosion
telegraphic speech

Front 162

Other aspects of Speech/Language
_________________Language – being able to understand language and emerges before expressive. Passive language

Back 162

receptive language

Front 163

___________________Language – being able to express through language. Active language

Back 163

expressive language

Front 164

Characteristics of Early Speech:
 _____________________
 Understand ___________structures even though they cannot express them
 ______________: limited use of terms – Ex. Doggy only refers to their own dog
 _____________: use broad terms or one word to mean many things such as juice for all beverages
 ______________Rules – rigid application of a grammatical rule “I broked it”

Back 164

Simplistic
grammetical
underextensions
overextensions
overregulation

Front 165

Nature vs. Nurture Debate
___________:
Noam Chomsky proposes that humans have an innate capacity for acquiring language.
He suggests an inborn ___________________(LAD) in the brain. He proposes that the brain is equipped with this device and with appropriate circumstances (stimulation) the child will develop language. It allows the child’s brain to analyze the language they hear and figure out its rules

Back 165

Nature
lang aguis device

Front 166

_________________:
B.F. Skinner proposed that language is learned through experience and reinforcement. It is like any other learned behavior in that it is based on experience
It is likely that rather than one or the other – a synthesis of innate capacity and behaviorist principles most likely

Back 166

Nurture

Front 167

Influences on early language development

Back 167

maturation of the brain

social interaction with parents and caregivers

child directed speech

Front 168

“Motherese/Parentese” – a form of speech often used when talking to babies. Chacterized by using a slow, modified speech and high-pitched tones, exaggerated vowels and much repetition. This is adopted by most people who interact with infants and can even be observed in small children

Back 168

child directed speech

Front 169

Strategies Used to Encourage Language in Children
∞ ___________– rephrasing of what a child said
∞ ___________– repeating what a child says
∞ ___________– take the phrase one step further by adding additional information
∞ _____________– identifying and naming objects

Back 169

recasting
echoing
expanding
labeling

Front 170

Reading to an infant/toddler allows an opportunity for emotional intimacy and also encourages communication and language development

Adult Reading Styles with Children
 _____________Style – the adult focuses on describing events in story. Invites child to do so, too
 ______________Style - Encourages child to look deeper into meaning of story (What
will the lion do now?)
 __________________oriented Style - Introduces themes of story and asks questions after

Back 170

describer

comrehender

performance

Front 171

________________Reading (Shared Reading) – another reading style when the child learns to become the storyteller
• ____________becomes the storyteller
• Adult is _____________listener
• Adult asks ______________questions such as “Why do you think the bunny is afraid?”
Research shows children read to in this way show higher vocabulary and expressive language skills as compared to a control group.

Literacy and language are key!

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Dialogic

child
active
open-ended