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371 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Contrast nervous and endocrine systems in terms of speed and duration of response. |
The nervous system has a fast response and short duration. The endocrine system has a slower response and longer duration. |
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Differentiate between endocrine and exocrine glands. |
Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts that carry the secretions into body cavities, into the lumen of an organ or to the outer surface of the body. Endocrine glands secrete hormones into interstitial fluid and blood. |
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To what must a hormone bind to cause its effects? |
Hormones bind to receptors on target cells. |
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Explain the process by which hormone receptor numbers are regulated. |
When there is a high level of circulating hormone receptor number decreases which is down regulation. This makes the target cell less sensitive to the hormone. When there is a low level of circulating hormone the receptor number increases which is up regulation making the target cell more sensitive to the hormone. |
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List the two broad classes of hormones giving examples of each. |
The two broad classes of hormones are those that are soluble in lipids and those that are soluble in water. The lipid-soluble hormones are steroid hormones, thyroid hormones and nitric oxide. The water soluble hormones are amine hormones (melatonin), peptide hormones (ADH, oxytocin), protein hormones (hGH, insulin). |
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Describe the action of lipid soluble hormones. |
Their mechanism of action is as follows: 1. A lipid-soluble hormone molecule detaches from its transport protein in the bloodstream then crosses the plasma membrane. 2. It binds to receptors located in the target cell. 3. It alters gene expression. 4. mRNA directs synthesis of a new protein which alters the cell's activity. |
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Describe the mechanism of action of water soluble hormones. |
The action of water soluble hormones is: 1. A water soluble hormone (the first messenger) diffuses from the blood. 2. It binds to its receptor on the target cell's plasma membrane. 3. It causes ATP to be converted to cyclic AMP by adenylate cyclase enzyme. 3. Cyclic AMP (the second messenger) activates several enzymes that alters cell activity. |
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How is cyclic AMP formed? Why is cyclic AMP considered a 'second messenger'? |
Cyclic-AMP is formed from ATP by adenylate cyclase. Cyclic-AMP is termed the second messenger. Cyclic-AMP activates otherwise inactive enzymes in the cell to cause the response attributed to the hormone. |
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List three factors that determine the responsiveness of target cells to a hormone. |
The responsiveness of a target cell to a hormone depends on 1. the hormone's concentration in the blood. 2. the number of target cell receptors and 3. influences of other hormones. |
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What is meant by permissive, synergistic and antagonistic effects of hormones? |
Permissive is when the action of the hormone requires a simultaneous or recent exposure to a second hormone to exert its full effect. Synergistic is when more than one hormone produces the same effect and their combined effects are greater than the sum of the two hormones acting alone. Antagonistic is when the action of one hormone opposes the action of a second hormone. |
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The hypothalamus is regarded as the major integrating link between the nervous and endocrine systems. Why? |
The hypothalamus contains neurosecretory cells that produce releasing and inhibiting hormones that affect the release of anterior pituitary hormones. |
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What regulatory hormones does the hypothalamus produce? |
Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH), growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH), thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH), gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), prolactin releasing hormone (PRH), prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH), corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH). |
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What is the functional importance of the hypophyseal portal veins? |
To transport releasing and inhibiting hormones from neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus directly to the anterior pituitary gland before hormones are diluted or destroyed in the general circulation. |
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Hormones produced by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland regulate which body functions? |
The hypothalamic and pituitary hormones play important roles in the regulation of virtually all aspects of growth, development, metabolism and homeostasis. |
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What is meant by the term 'trophic hormone' or tropin? |
Those anterior pituitary hormones that influence another endocrine gland are called tropic hormones or tropins. |
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Which anterior pituitary hormones stimulate a second endocrine gland to release a hormone? |
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). |
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Describe two ways in which secretion of anterior pituitary hormones are regulated. |
By hypothalamic releasing/inhibiting hormones and negative feedback from increased blood level of hormone. |
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How is the release of human growth hormone controlled? |
It is released every few hours in bursts especially during sleep. Hypoglycaemia, decreased fatty acids and stress increases human growth hormone release. Hyperglycaemia and increased fatty acids decreases human growth hormone release. |
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What is the releasing factor and action of human growth hormone (hGH)? |
The releasing factor is growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and its action is that it stimulates liver, muscle, cartilage, bone and other tissues to synthesize and secrete insulinlike growth factors (IGFs). IGFs promote growth of body cells, protein synthesis, tissue repair, lipolysis and elevation of blood glucose concentration. |
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What is the releasing factor and action of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)? |
The releasing factor is thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and its action is that it stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland. |
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What is the releasing factor and action of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)? |
The releasing factor is gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and its action is in females to initiate development of oocytes and induce ovarian secretion of oestrogens. In males it stimulates testes to produce sperm. |
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What is the releasing factor and action of luteinizing hormone (LH)? |
The releasing factor is gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and its action is in females to stimulate secretion of oestrogens and progesterone, ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum. In males it stimulates testes to produce testosterone. |
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What is the releasing factor and action of prolactin (PRL)? |
The releasing factor is prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) and its action is that together with other hormones it promotes milk production by the mammary glands. |
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What is the releasing factor and action of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)? |
The releasing factor is corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and its action is to stimulate the secretion of glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) by the adrenal cortex. |
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What is the releasing factor and action of melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)? |
The releasing factor is corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and its exact role in humans is unknown but may influence brain activity. When present in excess it can cause darkening of the skin. |
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Which two hormones are stored and released from the posterior pituitary gland? Where are they synthesized? |
Oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) are synthesized in the hypothalamus. |
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What affect would drinking a large volume of water have on the osmotic pressure of your blood? The level of ADH? |
It would decrease osmotic pressure which would decrease antidiuretic hormone to allow excretion of water. |
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How is oxytocin secretion controlled and what are its actions? |
Oxytocin's secretion is controlled by uterine distension and stimulation of nipples. Its action is contraction of uterine smooth muscle and milk ejection from mammary glands. |
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How is the secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin controlled and what is its action? |
Increased blood osmotic pressure, dehydration and decreased blood volume stimulates antidiuretic hormone release. In response it decreases urine, decreases perspiration and constricts arterioles. |
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Which hormones does the thyroid gland produce and which cells secrete each type? |
The follicular cells produce two hormones. Triiodothyronine or T3 and thyroxine or T4. A few cells called parafollicular cells lie between the follicles. They produce the hormone calcitonin. |
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What is the releasing factor, control of secretion and action of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) otherwise known as the thyroid hormones ? |
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary stimulate synthesis in response to low T3 and T4 hormone levels, low metabolic rate, cold, pregnancy and high altitudes. This increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR), increases use of glucose and fatty acids for ATP production, increases the breakdown of triglycerides, stimulates body growth and the development of the nervous system. |
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What is the releasing factor, control of secretion and action of calcitonin (CT)? |
High blood calcium levels stimulate secretion. Its action is to lower blood levels of calcium and phosphates by inhibiting bone resorption by osteoclasts and by accelerating uptake of calcium and phosphates into bone matrix. |
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Where are the parathyroid glands located? What do they secrete? |
The parathyroid glands are partially embedded in the posterior surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland. They secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH). |
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How is secretion controlled and the action of parathyroid hormone |
Low blood calcium level stimulates the secretion of parathyroid hormone. It increases blood calcium levels and magnesium levels and decreases blood phosphate levels. It increases bone resorption, it increases calcium reabsorption and phosphate excretion by kidneys, promotes formation of calcitrol which increases dietary calcium and magnesium absorption. |
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What are the two regions of the adrenal gland? |
Adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. |
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What does each region of the adrenal gland secrete? |
The cortex secretes mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), glucocorticoids (cortisol) and weak androgens. The medulla secretes noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and adrenaline (epinephrine). |
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What is the releasing factor, control of secretion and the action of the mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)? |
Increased blood potassium levels and angiotensin II stimulate secretion of corticotropin releasing hormone. The main actions are to increase blood levels of sodium and water and decrease blood levels of of potassium |
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What is the releasing factor, control of secretion and the action of the glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol)? |
Corticotropin-releasing hormone promotes adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion in response to stress and low blood levels of glucocorticoids. Its action is to increase protein breakdown, stimulate gluconeogenesis and lipolysis, provide resistance to stress, dampen inflammation and depress immune responses. |
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What is the releasing factor, control of secretion and the action of androgens? |
Corticotropin releasing hormone stimulates adrenocorticotropic hormone. It assists in early growth of axillary and pubic hair in both sexes. In females it contributes to libido and is a source of oestrogens after menopause. |
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What is the releasing factor, control of secretion and the action of epinephrine and norepinephrine? |
Secretion is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system stimulation in response to stress. Its action is to enhance the effects of sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system during stress. |
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Describe the response of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway in regulating blood pressure and volume. |
1. Decreased blood pressure and volume causes renin secretion. 2. Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I. 3. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) converts 4. Angiotensin I to angiotensin II which vasoconstricts causing the adrenal cortex to secrete 5. Aldosterone which increases sodium and water reabsorption. |
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What hormones are produced and secreted by the pancreas? Which cells secrete each hormone? |
Alpha cells, secrete glucagon. Beta cells secrete insulin. |
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How is secretion controlled in glucagon and what is its action? |
Decreased blood glucose, sympathetic stimulation during exercise and mainly protein meals stimulate secretion. Insulin inhibits secretion. Its action is to raise blood glucose levels by causing liver cells to accelerate the breakdown of glycogen into glucose and converting non-carbohydrate nutrients into glucose. |
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How is secretion controlled in insulin and what is its action? |
Increased blood glucose, stimulation by the parasympathetic division following a high carbohydrate meal, hGH and ACTH stimulate secretion. Its action is to lower blood glucose levels by accelerating transport of glucose into cells, converting glucose into glycogen and conversion of glucose into fat in adipose cells. |
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Which hormones do the ovaries and testes produce? |
The ovaries produce oestrogens, progesterone, inhibin, relaxin and testes produce testosterone and inhibin. |
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What is the action of oestrogen and progesterone? |
Regulates the female reproductive cycle, maintain pregnancy, prepare mammary glands for lactation and secondary sex characteristics. |
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What is the action of relaxin? |
Relaxin increases the flexibility of the pubic symphysis during pregnancy. It helps dilate the uterine cervix during labour and delivery. |
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What is the action of inhibin? |
Inhibin inhibits the secretion of FSH from the anterior pituitary. |
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What is the action of testosterone? |
Testosterone stimulates descent of the testes before birth. It regulates spermatogenesis and secondary sex characteristics. |
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Which hormone does the pineal gland secrete? |
Melatonin |
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What is melatonin's function? |
Sleep wake cycle and biological clock. |
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List the major parts of the GI tract from the mouth to the anus. |
Mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus. |
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List the accessory organs of the digestive system. |
The accessory organs are the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. |
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Why are accessory organs termed accessory organs of the GI tract? |
They aid in mechanical or chemical digestion. The liver, the gallbladder and the pancreas empty their secretions into the gastrointestinal tract via ducts. |
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Differentiate between mechanical and chemical digestion. |
Mechanical digestion is cutting, grinding and churning of food but no chemical change. Chemical digestion is chemical breakdown of food via enzymes. |
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List the four major layers of the GI system and any sub layers. |
From deep to superficial the four layers are the mucosa (including the epithelium, the lamina propria and the muscularis mucosae), the submucosa, the muscularis (including the inner circular layer and the outer longitudinal layer) and the serosa (or adventitia). |
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What is the major function of each of the four layers of the GI tract? |
The mucosa absorbs the digested components. The submucosa binds the mucosa to the muscularis, contains blood and lymph vessels, glands and submucosal nerve plexus. The muscularis mixes and propels food through the gastrointestinal tract and is contained/innervated by the myenteric nerve plexus. The serosa suspends the gastrointestinal tract in the abdominopelvic cavity. |
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Describe the peritoneum. |
The peritoneum is the largest serous membrane of the body. It is double layered. The parietal peritoneum lines the cavity and the visceral peritoneum covers the organs. |
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Describe the two plexi that comprise the enteric nervous system and their functions. |
The submucosal plexi contains sensory neurons that detect chemicals (chemoreceptors), stretch and motor neurons and control secretion of gastrointestinal organs. The myenteric plexi also contain sensory neurons that detect chemicals, stretch and motor neurons and control gastric motility. |
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What is the effect of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system in digestive system function? |
Stimulation by sympathetic nerves decreases gastrointestinal secretion and motility. Stimulation by parasympathetic neurons increases gastrointestinal secretion and motility. |
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Describe the major structures of the oral cavity. |
Lips, cheeks, hard palate, soft palate, tongue and teeth. |
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List the salivary glands located around the mouth. |
The parotid gland (anterior/inferior ear), the submandibular gland and the sublingual gland. |
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How is the secretion of saliva regulated? |
Salivation is controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Parasympathetic stimulation stimulates secretion. Sympathetic stimulation inhibits secretion. The feel and taste of food stimulate salivary glands. The feel, smell, sight and taste of food stimulates salivation. |
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Describe the mechanical digestion of the mouth. |
Food is manipulated by the tongue, ground by the teeth and moistened with saliva. |
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Describe chemical digestion in the mouth. |
Salivary amylase initiates the breakdown of starch. Lingual lipase is secreted by the tongue. It doesn't start to work to break down triglycerides until it is activated by acid in the stomach. |
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Describe the pharynx. |
The pharynx is a funnel-shaped tube that extends from the internal nares to the oesophagus and larynx. It is divided into the nasopharynx (respiration only), oropharynx (respiration and swallowing) and the laryngopharynx also used for respiration and swallowing. |
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Describe the gross anatomy of the oesophagus. |
The oesophagus is a collapsible muscular tube, that lies posterior to the trachea. It descends through the mediastinum, extends through an opening in the diaphragm called the oesophageal hiatus and ends in the superior portion of the stomach. |
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Describe the microscopic anatomy of the oesophagus. |
The mucosa and the submucosa is nonkeratinised stratified squamous epithelium. The muscularis transitions from skeletal muscle in the superior portion to smooth muscle in the inferior portion. There is an upper and lower oesophageal sphincter. There is adventitia rather than serosa. The connective tissue connects it to surrounding structures. |
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Describe the oral, pharyngeal and oesophageal stages of swallowing. |
The voluntary stage of swallowing starts when the bolus is forced to the back of the mouth and into the oropharynx. The involuntary pharyngeal stage of swallowing is triggered by receptors in the oropharynx. The deglutition centre causes the soft palate and uvula to close off the nasopharynx and the epiglottis to close the larynx. The bolus moves into the oesophagus once the upper oesophageal sphincter relaxes. The oesophageal stage of swallowing is involuntary. Peristalsis pushes the bolus through the oesophagus. The lower oesophageal sphincter relaxes and the bolus enters the stomach. |
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Describe the gross anatomy of the stomach. |
The stomach is a J shaped enlargement of the gastrointestinal tract connecting the oesophagus to the duodenum. The four main regions are the cardia, fundus, body and the pylorus including the pyloric antrum, the pyloric canal and the pyloric sphincter. It has folds called rugae. The lesser curvature is the concave border and the greater curvature is the convex border. |
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Describe the histological anatomy of the stomach. |
The stomach wall is composed of the same four basic layers as the rest of the GI tract with certain modifications. The surface of the mucosa is a layer of simple columnar epithelium which extend down into the lamina propria to form pits and glands with surface mucous cells, mucous neck cells, parietal cells (vitamin B12 absorption), chief cells (pepsinogen and gastric lipase) and G cells. The muscularis has three layers of smooth muscle which are the outer longitudinal, middle circular and inner oblique layers. |
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Describe the mechanical digestion in the stomach. |
Mixing waves every 15-25 seconds occur in the body of the stomach and intensify as they reach the pylorus. |
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What are the secretions and actions of chief cells? |
Chief cells secrete pepsinogen and gastric lipase. The activated form of pepsin breaks down proteins into peptides. Gastric lipase splits triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides. |
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What are the secretions and actions of the parietal cells? |
Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor. Hydrochloric acid kills microbes in food, denatures proteins and converts pepsinogen to pepsin. Intrinsic factor is needed for absorption of Vitamin B12 which is essential for erythropoiesis. |
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What are the secretions and actions of G cells? |
G cells secrete the hormone gastrin. They stimulate parietal cells to secrete hydrochloric acid and chief cells to secrete pepsinogen, contract the lower oesophageal sphincter, increase the motility of the stomach and relaxes the pyloric sphincter. |
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What are the secretion and action of mucous cells? |
They secrete mucous which forms a protective barrier that prevents digestion of the stomach wall. |
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Why is pepsin secreted in an inactive form? |
Because its function is to digest proteins and if stored in an active form it would digest proteins in chief cells. |
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How is the hydrochloride secreted by the stomach formed? |
Hydrogen ions and chloride ions are secreted separately into the stomach. Hydrogen ions are secreted in exchange for potassium via hydrogen/potassium ATPase and chloride ions diffuse into the lumen. |
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Describe the gross anatomy of the pancreas. |
The pancreas is about 12-15cm long and 2.5cm thick and consists of a head, a body and a tail. It has a pancreatic duct and accessory duct that takes pancreatic juice to the small intestine. The pancreatic duct joins with the bile duct and enters at the hepatopancreatic ampulla. |
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Describe the histology of the pancreas. |
99% of the pancreas comprises of many small clusters (called acini) of glandular epithelial cells which secrete pancreatic juice. This is the exocrine gland. 1% are pancreatic islets which secrete glucagon and insulin and this is the endocrine gland. |
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Describe the pancreatic juice and its enzymes. |
Pancreatic juice consists of water, salts, sodium bicarbonate (alkali) and digestive enzymes and produces about 1.2-1.5 litres per day. Pancreatic amylase digests starch. Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase and elastase digest protein. Pancreatic lipase digests triglycerides and ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease digests nucleic acids. |
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How are the protein digesting enzymes in pancreatic juice activated? |
Trypsin is secreted in an inactive form called trypsinogen. It's activated by a brush border enzyme called enterokinase. Trypsin then activates the other protein digesting enzymes (chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase and elastase).
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Describe the gross anatomy of the liver. |
The liver occupies the right quadrant of the abdominal cavity. It has four lobes. The left and right lobes are the major lobes and the smaller lobes are the quadrate and caudate lobes. It is suspended by the falciform ligament from the inferior surface of the diaphragm. The gallbladder is attached to the posterior surface. |
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Describe the histology of the liver. |
The liver consists of many lobules which are hexagonal (six-sided). Hepatocytes make up the lobules and are arranged irregularly in plates that radiate out from a central vein. Between the plates of hepatocytes are sinusoids (capillaries). At each of the six corners of the lobule are three structures within a portal triad. The triad consists of a branch of the hepatic artery, a branch of the hepatic portal vein and bile duct. |
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Describe the bile duct system. |
Bile canaliculi are small ducts between hepatocytes that empty into bile ducts at each corner of lobule within the portal triad. Bile ducts merge into the larger right and left hepatic ducts that leave each major lobe of the liver. The left and right hepatic ducts join to form the common hepatic duct. The cystic duct from the gallbladder joins to form the common bile duct.
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Which blood vessels enter and leave the liver? |
The hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein (nutrient rich blood from the gastrointestinal tract enter the liver. The hepatic vein leaves the liver. |
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What is the function of bile? |
The emulsification of fats by sodium and potassium salts. |
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Describe the functions of liver. |
Carbohydrate metabolism, lipid metabolism, protein metabolism. Processing of drugs and hormones. Excretion of bilirubin and synthesis of bile salts. Storage for vitamins and minerals, site of phagocytosis and activation of vitamin D. |
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List the regions of the small intestine in order from the stomach to the large intestine. |
Duodenum, jejunam and ileum. |
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Describe the gross anatomy of the small intestine. |
It is 3 metres long, 2.5cm in diameter and has circular folds called plicae circulares. |
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What purpose do the circular folds of the small intestine serve? |
Circular folds (plicae circulares) are folds of the mucosa and submucosa. These permanent ridges enhance absorption by increasing surface area and causing the chyme to spiral rather than move in a straight line as it passes through the small intestine. |
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Describe the histology of the small intestine. |
The wall of the small intestine is composed of the same four layers that make up most of the GI tract with special modifications. The epithelium of the mucosa has absorptive cells and goblet cells. The epithelium covers villi (finger like projections) and has microvilli (brush border) and extends into intestinal glands with Paneth cells that secrete lysozome and endocrine cells that cholecystokinin (digestion of fats and protein) and secretin (secretion from the pancreas). The lamina propria has abundant lymphatic nodules. The submucosa contains duodenal glands which secrete alkaline mucous. |
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What is the function of Paneth cells? |
Paneth cells secrete lysozome.
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What is the function of the enteroendocrine cells? |
Enteroendocrine cells found in the intestinal glands secrete the hormones secretin (secretions from the pancreas) and cholesystokinin (digestion of fats and proteins).
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What is the function of the fluid secreted by the duodenal glands? |
It is alkaline and neutralises gastric acid in the chyme. |
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Stomach, what is a? |
a. Oesophagus |
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Stomach, what letter is the oesophagus?
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a |
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Stomach, what is b?
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b. Fundus |
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Stomach, what letter is the fundus?
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b |
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Stomach, what is c?
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c. Serosa muscularis |
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Stomach, what letter is the serosa muscularis?
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c |
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Stomach, what is d?
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d. Longitudinal layer |
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Stomach, what letter is the longitudinal layer?
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d |
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Stomach, what is e?
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e. Circular layer |
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Stomach, what letter is the circular layer?
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e |
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Stomach, what is f?
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f. Oblique layer |
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Stomach, what letter is the oblique layer?
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f |
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Stomach, what is g?
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g. Greater curvature |
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Stomach, what letter is the greater curvature?
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g |
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Stomach, what is h?
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h. Rugae of mucosa |
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Stomach, what letter is the rugae of mucosa?
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h |
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Stomach, what is i?
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i. Pyloric antrum |
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Stomach, what letter is the pyloric antrum?
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i |
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Stomach, what is j?
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j. Pyloric canal |
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Stomach, what letter is the pyloric canal?
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j |
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Stomach, what is k?
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k. Pyloric sphincter |
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Stomach, what letter is the pyloric sphincter?
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k |
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Stomach, what is l?
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l. Duodenum |
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Stomach, what letter is the duodenum?
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l |
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Stomach, what is m?
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m. Pylorus |
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Stomach, what letter is the pylorus?
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m |
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Stomach, what is n?
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n. Lesser curvature |
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Stomach, what letter is the lesser curvature?
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n |
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Stomach, what is o?
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o. Body |
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Stomach, what letter is the body?
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o |
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Stomach, what is p?
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p. Cardia |
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Stomach, what letter is the cardia?
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p |
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Stomach, what is q?
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q. Lower oesophageal sphincter |
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Stomach, what letter is the oesophageal sphincter?
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q |
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List the four major structural regions of the large intestine and their functions. |
The large intestine is about 1.5m long and extends from the ileum to the anus. Structurally four major regions of the large intestine are the cecum, colon, rectum and the anal canal. The opening from the ileum into the large intestine is guarded by a fold of mucous membrane called the ileocecal sphincter which controls the passage of materials from the small intestine into the large intestine. Hanging inferior to the ileocecal sphincter is the cecum a small pouch about 6cm long. Attached to the cecum is a twisted, coiled tube measuring about 8cm in length called the vermiform appendix or simply the appendix. The open end of the cecum merges with a long tube called the colon which is divided into ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid portions. Both the ascending and descending colon are retroperitoneal. The transverse and sigmoid colon are not retroperitoneal. The ascending colon ascends on the right side of the abdomen, reaches the inferior surface of the liver and turns abruptly to the left to form the right colic (hepatic) flexure. The colon continues across the abdomen to the left side as the transverse colon. It curves beneath the inferior end of the spleen on the left side as the left colic (splenic) flexure and passes inferiorly to the level of the iliac crest as the descending colon. The sigmoid colon begins near the left iliac crest, projects medially to the midline and terminates as the rectum at about the level of the third sacral vertebra. The rectum, the last 20cm of the GI tract lies anterior to the sacrum and coccyx. The terminal 2-3cm of the rectum is called the anal canal. The mucous membrane of the anal canal is arranged in longitudinal folds called anal columns. The opening of the anal canal to the exterior called the anus is guarded by an internal and external sphincter of smooth muscle (involuntary) and an external anal sphincter of skeletal muscle (voluntary). Normally these sphincters keep the anus closed except during the elimination of faeces. |
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Compare and contrast the functions of the absorptive and goblet cells of the mucosa. |
The epithelium of the mucosa in the large intestine contains mostly absorptive and goblet cells. The absorptive cells function primarily in water absorption. The goblet cells secrete mucous that lubricates the passage of the colonic contents. Both absorptive and goblet cells are located in the long, tubular intestinal glands that extend the full thickness of the mucosa. |
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Summarise the digestive activities which occur in the large intestine. |
The lumen is concerned with bacterial activity. It breaks down undigested carbohydrates, proteins and amino acids into products that can be expelled in faeces or absorbed and detoxified by the liver, synthesizes certain B vitamins and vitamin K. The mucosa is concerned with secreting mucous and absorption. The mucosa lubricates the colon and protects the mucosa. Water absorption solidifies faeces and contributes to the body's water balance. The solutes absorbed include ions and some vitamins. The muscularis is concerned with haustral churning, peristalsis, mass peristalsis and the defecation reflex. The muscular moves contents from the haustrum to haustrum by muscular contractions. It moves contents along the length of the colon by contractions of circular and longitudinal muscles. It forces contents into the sigmoid colon and rectum. It eliminates faeces by contractions in the sigmoid colon and rectum. |
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Briefly describe what occurs during the cephalic, gastric and intestinal stages of digestion. |
During the cephalic phase of digestion the smell, sight, thought or initial taste of food activates neural centres in the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus and the brain stem. The brain stem then activates the facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX) and vagus (X) nerves. The facial and glossopharyngeal nerves stimulate the salivary glands to secrete saliva while the vagus (X) nerve stimulates the gastric glands to secrete gastric juice. The purpose of the cephalic phase of digestion is to prepare the mouth and stomach for food that is about to be eaten. Once food reaches the stomach the gastric phase of digestion begins. Neural and hormonal mechanisms regulate the gastric phase of digestion to promote gastric secretion and gastric motility. The intestinal phase of digestion begins once food enters the small intestine. In contrast to reflexes initiated during the cephalic and gastric phases which stimulate stomach secretory activity and motility, those occurring during the intestinal phase have inhibitory effects that slow the exit of chyme from the stomach. This prevents the duodenum from being overloaded with more chyme than it can handle. In addition responses during the intestinal phase promote the continued digestion of foods that have reached the small intestine. These activities of the intestinal phase of digestion are regulated by neural and hormonal mechanisms. |
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Detail the major hormones which are responsible for controlling digestion. |
Gastrin is released from gastric glands in response to several stimuli including distension of the stomach by chyme, partially digested proteins in chyme or a high pH of chyme due to the presence of certain foods in the stomach. Once gastrin is released it enters the bloodstream makes a round trip through the body and finally reaches its target organs in the digestive system. It also strengthens the contraction of the lower oesophageal sphincter to prevent reflux of acid chyme into the oesophagus, increases the motility of the stomach and relaxes the pyloric sphincter which promotes gastric emptying. Gastrin secretion is inhibited when the pH of gastric juice drops below 2.0 and is stimulated when the pH rises. This negative feedback mechanism helps provide an optimal low pH for the functioning of pepsin, the killing of microbes and the breakdown of proteins in the stomach. Acidic chyme entering the duodenum stimulates the release of secretin from the small intestinal glands. Secretin stimulates the flow of pancreatic juice that is rich in bicarbonate ions to buffer the acidic chyme that enters the duodenum from the small intestine. Secretin also inhibits secretion of gastric juice. Overall secretin decreases the acidity of chyme entering the duodenum by buffering acids in chyme that reaches the duodenum and slowing production of acid in the stomach. Cholecystokinin (CCK) is secreted in response to chyme containing amino acids from partially digested proteins and fatty acids from partially digested triglycerides. CCK stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice that is rich in digestive enzymes. It causes the gallbladder to contract ejecting its stored bile into the cystic duct and through the common bile duct. In addition CCK slows gastric emptying by promoting contraction of the pyloric sphincter and produces satiety by acting on the hypothalamus in the brain. |
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Define metabolism. |
Metabolism refers to all of the chemical reactions that occur in the body. |
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Define catabolism. |
Overall catabolic (decomposition) reactions are exergonic. They produce more energy than they consume. Important sets of catabolic reactions occur in glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain. |
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|
Define anabolism. |
Chemical reactions that combine simple molecules to form the body's complex structural and functional components are collectively known as anabolism. Examples of anabolic reactions are the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids during protein synthesis, the building of fatty acids into phospholipids that form the plasma membrane bilayer and the linkage of glucose molecules to form glycogen. Anabolic reactions are endergonic. They can consume more energy than they produce. |
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Define co-enzymes. |
Other enzymes work together with co-enzymes which function as temporary carriers of atoms being removed from or added to a substrate during a reaction. Many co-enzymes are derived from vitamins eg NAD+ derived from the B vitamin niacin and the co-enzyme FAD derived from vitamin B2. |
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Explain the difference between nutrients, minerals and vitamins. |
Nutrients are chemical substances in food that body cells use for growth, maintenance and repair. Minerals are inorganic elements that occur naturally in the Earth's crust. In the body they appear in combination with one another in combination with organic compounds or as ions in solution. Vitamins are organic nutrients required in small amounts to maintain growth and normal metabolism. Vitamins do not provide energy or serve as the body's building materials. Most vitamins with known functions are co-enzymes. |
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Which organs constitute the urinary system? |
The kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra |
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|
How do the kidneys alter blood chemistry? |
By regulating blood ionic composition, pH, volume, pressure and glucose levels. |
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|
What are wastes and how do the kidneys participate in their removal from the body? |
By forming wastes the kidneys help excrete wastes which are substances that have no useful function in the body. |
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Why are kidneys said to be retroperitoneal? |
Their position in the body is posterior to the peritoneum of the abdominal cavity. |
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Which structures pass through the renal hilum? |
Ureter, renal artery, renal vein, lymphatic vessels and nerves. |
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|
How is the kidney protected? |
By the deep renal capsule, middle adipose capsule and the superficial renal fascia. |
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|
What are the major parts of a nephron? |
The renal corpuscle consisting of the glomerulus and glomerular capsule. and the renal tubules consisting of the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle and the distal convoluted tubule. |
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Where in the kidney are the renal pyramids located? |
In the medulla. |
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Where are renal corpuscles located? |
The renal corpuscles are located within the renal cortex. |
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What are the basic differences between the cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons? |
About 85% of the nephrons are cortical nephrons which have short nephron loops that lie mainly in the cortex and penetrate only into the outer region of the renal medulla. The short nephron loops receive their blood supply from peritubular capillaries. The other 15% of the nephrons are juxtamedullary nephrons which have long nephron loops that extend into the deepest region of the medulla. Long nephron loops receive their blood supply from peritubular capillaries and from the vasa recta. In addition the ascending limb of the nephron loop of juxtamedullary nephrons consist of two portion: a thin ascending limb followed by a thick ascending limb. |
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Which structures enclose the capsular space? |
The parietal and visceral layers of the glomerular capsule. |
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Where is the juxtaglomerular apparatus located and what is its structure? |
The juxtaglomerular apparatus consists of macula densa cells in the wall of the distal convoluted tubule and juxtaglomerular cells which are modified smooth muscle cells in the afferent arteriole wall. The juxtaglomerular apparatus is located where the distal convoluted tubule makes contact with the afferent arteriole. |
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Which three processes result in the formation of urine? |
Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion. |
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If the urinary excretion rate of a drug such as penicillin is greater than the rate at which it is filtered at the glomerulus how else is it getting into the urine? |
By secretion. |
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When cells of the renal tubules secrete the drug penicillin is the drug being added to or removed from the bloodstream? |
It is being removed from the bloodstream |
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A water molecule has just entered the glomerulus. Which structures will it pass through to arrive at the proximal convoluted tubule? |
It will pass through a glomerular endothelial cell, the basal lamina and a filtration slit formed by a podocyte. |
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What is the major chemical difference between blood plasma and glomerular filtrate? |
Blood plasma contains blood cells, platelets, most plasma proteins and nutrients. Glomerular filtrate contains nutrients but no formed elements and very few, if any, of the plasma proteins. |
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Why is there much greater filtration through glomerular capillaries than through capillaries elsewhere in the body? |
Glomerular capillaries present a large surface area for filtration. They are about 50 times leakier than capillaries in most other tissues due to their large fenestrations and glomerular capillary blood pressure is high. |
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How does blood pressure promote filtration of blood in the kidneys? |
By forcing water and solutes in blood plasma through the filtration membrane. |
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How do the myogenic mechanism and tubuloglomerular feedback regulate the glomerular filtration rate? Why are these processes termed autoregulation? |
By vasodilation of the afferent arterioles which increases glomerular filtration rate. Kidneys adjust their own resistance to blood flow which is renal autoregulation. |
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How is the glomerular filtration rate regulated by the autonomic nervous system and by hormones? |
In the autonomic nervous system, increased activity of sympathetic nerves results in the release of norepinephrine which causes constriction of afferent arterioles which increases systemic blood pressure which increases glomerular filtration rate. Angiotensin reduces glomerular filtration rate and atrial natriuretic peptide increases glomerular filtration rate. |
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Describe the two ways in which substances can be absorbed across the tubule cells. |
Paracellular reabsorption which is fluids leaking between the cells passively and transcellular reabsorption where substances pass from the fluid in the tubular lumen through the apical membrane of a tubule cell across the cytosol and out into interstitial fluid through the basolateral membrane. |
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On which tubule cell membrane are the sodium-potassium pumps located? What is the significance of sodium-potassium pumps not being located on the other membrane? |
The sodium potassium pumps are located on the basolateral surface. It ensures that reabsorption of sodium is a one-way process. |
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What is obligatory water reabsorption and in which parts of the nephron does it occur? |
Obligatory water reabsorption is water reabsorbed with solutes in the tubular fluid which occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule and the descending limb of the loop of Henle. |
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What are two mechanisms in the proximal convoluted tubule for reabsorption of sodium? Which other solutes are reabsorbed or secreted with sodium in each mechanism? |
Sodium symporters and sodium/hydrogen antiporters. The solutes absorbed with sodium symporters are virtually all nutrients such as glucose and amino acids. The solutes absorbed with sodium/hydrogen antiporters are bicarbonate ions. |
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What is the mechanism in the loop of Henle for reabsorption of sodium? Which other solutes are reabsorbed or secreted with sodium in this mechanism? |
Sodium potassium chloride (Na+-K-2Cl) symporters. Sodium, chloride, calcium and magnesium (Na+, Cl, Ca2 and Mg2). |
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Why does the tubular fluid become more dilute as it travels through the nephron loop? |
Because little or no water is reabsorbed in the ascending limb of the nephron loop and ions are reabsorbed in the ascending limb, the tubular fluid becomes progressively more dilute as it flows toward the end of the ascending limb. |
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In which part of the nephron does the most reabsorption of water occur? |
The proximal convoluted tubule and descending limb of the nephron loop. |
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Which part of the nephron is unable to reabsorb water? |
The ascending limb of the nephron loop. |
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How is the juxtaglomerular apparatus involved in blood pressure regulation by the kidneys? |
When blood pressure entering the renal tubule drops, juxtaglomerular cells secrete renin which converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I. Angiotensin I becomes angiotensin II which stimulates the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone. Aldosterone increases sodium and chloride reabsorption. As water levels in the blood rise, blood pressure increases to a normal level. |
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How do angiotensin II and aldosterone regulate tubular reabsorption and secretion? |
Angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortex to release aldosterone which stimulates the principal cells in the collecting ducts to reabsorb more sodium and chloride and secrete more potassium with the reabsorption of sodium and chloride. |
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How does antidiuretic hormone stimulate water reabsorption by principal cells? Is this process obligatory or facultative water reabsorption? |
Antidiuretic hormone increases the water permeability of principal cells in the last part of the distal convoluted tubule and throughout the collecting duct. This process is facultative. |
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Which hormones stimulate and which inhibit water reabsorption? |
The hormones that stimulate water reabsorption are angiotensin II, aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone. The hormone that inhibits water reabsorption is atrial natriuretic peptide. |
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Which force draws water out of the loop of Henle and into the interstitial flood of the renal medulla? |
Osmotic pressure |
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Which portions of the renal tubule and collecting duct reabsorb more solutes than water to produce dilute urine? |
The ascending limb of the nephron loop and the entire collecting duct. |
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Which solutes are the main contributors to the high osmotic gradient of interstitial fluid in the renal medulla? |
Sodium, potassium and urea. |
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Which portions of the renal tubule and/or collecting duct reabsorb water to produce concentrated urine? |
The long nephron loops and the collecting duct. |
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Which hormone controls the production of concentrated urine?
|
Antidiuretic hormone
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How does urea recycling contribute to the production of concentrated urine? |
The constant transfer of urea between segments of the renal tubule and the interstitial fluid of the medulla promotes water reabsorption with the solutes left behind in the lumen becoming very concentrated resulting in a small volume of concentrated urine. |
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Which forces help propel urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder? |
Peristaltic contractions of the muscular walls of the ureters. |
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What is the functional significance of transitional epithelium? |
It allows the organ lumen to stretch. |
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How the do the location and length of the urethra compare in males and females? |
In males the urethra extends from the internal urethral orifice and is elongated. In females the urethra lies directly posterior to the pubic symphysis and is shortened. |
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What are the three subdivisions of the male urethra? |
Prostatic, membranous and spongy. |
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What is body fluid? What are the percentage distributions of body fluids? What is the primary influence on body fluid volume? |
Water and dissolved solutes in the body. Intracellular fluid or cytosol is 66%, extracellular fluid is 33%. Of extracellular fluid interstitial fluid is 80% and plasma 20%. The primary influence on body fluid volume is water. |
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How do atrial natriuretic peptide, angiotensin II, aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone regulate the volume and osmotic pressure of bodily fluids? |
Atrial natriuretic peptide decreases blood volume and raises blood osmotic pressure. Angiotensin II increases blood volume and lowers blood osmotic pressure. Aldosterone decreases blood volume and raises blood osmotic pressure. Antidiuretic hormone decreases blood volume and raises blood osmotic pressure. |
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How do phosphate ions help maintain the pH of body fluids? |
Dihydrogen phosphate ion acts as a weak acid and is capable of buffering strong bases. Monohydrogen phosphate ion acts as a weak base and is capable of buffering H+ released by a strong acid. |
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How do intercalated cells maintain the pH of body fluids? |
By excreting excess H+ when pH of body fluids is too low and by excreting excess bicarbonate (HCO-3) when pH is too high. |
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Female Urinary System, what is a? |
a. Diaphragm |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is a?
|
Diaphragm |
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Female Urinary System, what is b?
|
b. Oesophagus |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is the oesophagus?
|
b |
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Female Urinary System, what is c?
|
c. Left adrenal gland |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is the left adrenal gland?
|
c |
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Female Urinary System, what is d?
|
d. Left renal vein |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is the left renal vein?
|
d |
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Female Urinary System, what is e?
|
e. Left kidney |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is the left kidney?
|
e |
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Female Urinary System, what is f?
|
f. Abdominal aorta |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is the abdominal aorta?
|
f |
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Female Urinary System, what is g?
|
g. Inferior vena cava |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is the inferior vena cava?
|
g |
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Female Urinary System, what is h?
|
h. Left ureter |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is the left ureter?
|
h |
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Female Urinary System, what is i?
|
i. Rectum |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is the left rectum?
|
i |
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|
Female Urinary System, what is j?
|
j. Left ovary |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is the left ovary?
|
j |
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Female Urinary System, what is k?
|
k. Uterus |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is the uterus?
|
k |
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Female Urinary System, what is l?
|
l. Urethra |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is the urethra?
|
l |
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Female Urinary System, what is m?
|
m. Urinary bladder |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is the urinary bladder?
|
m |
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|
Female Urinary System, what is n?
|
n. Right ureter |
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Female Urinary System, what letter is the right ureter?
|
n |
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|
Female Urinary System, what is o?
|
o. Right renal artery |
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|
Female Urinary System, what letter is the right renal artery?
|
o |
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|
Female Urinary System, what is p?
|
p. Right kidney |
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|
Female Urinary System, what letter is the right kidney?
|
p |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what is a? |
a. Renal capsule |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the renal capsule?
|
a |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what is b?
|
b. Renal corpuscle |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the renal corpuscle?
|
b |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what is c?
|
c. Glomerular capsule |
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Cortical Nephron, what letter is the glomerular capsule?
|
c |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what is d?
|
d. Glomerulus |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the glomerulus?
|
d |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is e?
|
e. Efferent arteriole |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the efferent arteriole?
|
e |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what is f?
|
f. Distal convoluted tubule. |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the distal convoluted tubule?
|
f |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is g?
|
g. Afferent arteriole |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the afferent arteriole?
|
g |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what is h?
|
h. Cortical radiate artery |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the cortical radiate artery?
|
h |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is i?
|
i. Cortical radiate vein |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the cortical radiate vein?
|
i |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is j?
|
j. Arcuate vein |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the arcuate vein?
|
j |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is k?
|
k. Arcuate artery |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the arcuate artery?
|
k |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is l?
|
l. Corticomedullary junction |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the corticomedullary junction?
|
l |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is m?
|
m. Nephron loop or loop of Henle |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the nephron loop or the loop of Henle?
|
m |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is n?
|
n. Descending limb of the nephron loop or loop of Henle |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the descending limb of the nephron loop or loop of Henle?
|
n |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is o?
|
o. The ascending limb of the nephron loop or loop of Henle |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the ascending limb of the nephron loop or loop of Henle?
|
o |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is p?
|
p. Collecting duct |
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|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the collecting duct?
|
p |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is q?
|
q. Papillary duct |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the papillary duct?
|
q |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is r?
|
r. Renal papilla |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the renal papilla?
|
r |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is s?
|
s. Minor calyx |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the minor calyx?
|
s |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is t?
|
t. Urine |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is urine?
|
t |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is u?
|
u. Renal medulla |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the renal medulla?
|
u |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is v?
|
v. Renal cortex |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the renal cortex?
|
v |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is w?
|
w. Peritubular capillary |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the peritubular capillary?
|
w |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what is x?
|
x. Proximal convoluted tubule |
|
|
Cortical Nephron, what letter is the proximal convoluted tubule?
|
x |
|
|
Kidney, what is a? |
a. Renal medulla |
|
|
Kidney, what letter is the renal medulla?
|
a. |
|
|
Kidney, what is b?
|
b. Renal lobe |
|
|
Kidney, what letter is the renal lobe?
|
b |
|
|
Kidney, what is c?
|
c. Renal pelvis |
|
|
Kidney, what letter is the renal pelvis?
|
c |
|
|
Kidney, what is d?
|
d. Ureter |
|
|
Kidney, what letter is the ureter?
|
d |
|
|
Kidney, what is e?
|
e. Renal cortex |
|
|
Kidney, what letter is the renal cortex?
|
e |
|
|
Renal Corpuscle, what is f? |
f. Distal convoluted tubule |
|
|
Kidney, what letter is the distal convoluted tubule?
|
f |
|
|
Kidney, what letter is the proximal convoluted tubule?
|
g |
|
|
Kidney, what is g?
|
g. Proximal convoluted tubule |
|
|
Kidney, what is h?
|
h. Glomerulus |
|
|
Kidney, what letter is the glomerulus?
|
h |
|
|
Kidney, what letter is i?
|
i. Ascending limb of the nephron loop |
|
|
Kidney, what letter is the ascending limb of the nephron loop?
|
i |
|
|
Kidney, what is j?
|
j. Descending limb of the nephron loop |
|
|
Kidney, what letter is the descending limb of the nephron loop?
|
j |
|
|
DIGESTION IS THE PROCESS OF TAKING FOOD AND LIQUIDS INTO THE MOUTH. TRUE OR FALSE? |
FALSE |
|
|
HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE THE PASSAGE OF SOLID OR SEMISOLID FOOD TO GO FROM THE MOUTH TO THE STOMACH? A. 4-8 SECONDS B. 1 SECOND |
A. 4-8 SECONDS |
|
|
HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE THE PASSAGE OF VERY SOFT FOODS AND LIQUIDS TO GO FROM THE MOUTH TO THE STOMACH? A. 4-8 SECONDS B. 1 SECOND |
B. 1 SECOND |
|
|
WHICH BEST DESCRIBES CHYME? A. A SOUPY LIQUID CREATED BY THE PERISTALTIC MOVEMENTS OF THE STOMACH MIXING INGESTED MATERIALS WITH GASTRIC JUICES B. AN INCREASED VOLUME AND FLUID CONTENT OF FAECES C. A MIXTURE OF SODIUM SALTS AND POTASSIUM SALTS WHICH PLAY A ROLE IN EMULSIFICATION D. AN ENZYME WHICH BREAKS DOWN CARBOHYDRATES |
A. A SOUPY LIQUID CREATED BY THE PERISTALTIC MOVEMENTS OF THE STOMACH MIXING INGESTED MATERIALS WITH GASTRIC JUICES. |
|
|
WHAT ARE THE REGIONS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE IN ORDER FROM THE STOMACH TO THE LARGE INTESTINE? A. PYLORIS, JEJUNUM, ILEUM B. DUODENUM, JEJUNUM, ILEUM C. PYLORUS, DUODENUM, ILEUM D. PYLORUS, DUODENUM, JEJUNUM |
B. DUODENUM, JEJUNUM, ILEUM |
|
|
THE LARGE INTESTINE EXTENDS FROM THE A. ASCENDING B. ILEOCAECAL SPHINCTER C. ANAL CANAL |
B. ILEOCAECAL SPHINCTER |
|
|
THE COLON IS DIVIDED INTO ________, DESCENDING AND SIGMOID COLON. A. ASCENDING B. ILEOCAECAL SPHINCTER C. ANAL CANAL |
A. ASCENDING |
|
|
THE TERMINAL END OF THE RECTUM IS A. ASCENDING B. ILEOCAECAL SPHINCTER C. ANAL CANAL |
C. ANAL CANAL |
|
|
THE WALL OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM USUALLY HAS AN OUTER ________ COAT A. MUCOSA B. SEROSA OR ADVENTITIA C. SUBMUCOSA D. LUMEN |
B. SEROSA OR ADVENTITIA |
|
|
THE SUPERFICIAL LAYER OF THE OESOPHAGUS IS KNOWN AS THE ADVENTITIA, RATHER THAN THE SEROSA, BECAUSE THE CONNECTIVE TISSUE ATTACHES TO THE SURROUNDING STRUCTURES OF THE MEDIASTINUM THROUGH WHICH THE OESOPHAGUS PASSES. TRUE OR FALSE? |
TRUE |
|
|
WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING IS NOT A HISTOLOGICAL COMPONENT OF THE LIVER? A. BILE DUCT SYSTEM B. HEPATOCYTES C. ACINI D. SINUSOIDS |
C. ACINI |
|
|
GOBLET CELLS (FOUND IN MOST MUCOUS MEMBRANES) SECRETE A. BUFFER B. ACID C. MUCOUS D. WATER |
C. MUCOUS |
|
|
WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF PANETH CELLS? A. SECRETES INTESTINAL JUICE B. SECRETES LYSOZOME, A BACTERICIDAL ENZYME AND ARE CAPABLE OF PHAGOCYTOSIS C. EMPTIES BILE INTO THE DUODENUM D. SECRETES MUCOUS |
B. SECRETES LYSOZOME, A BACTERIAL ENZYME AND ARE CAPABLE OF PHAGOCYTOSIS |
|
|
ABSORPTION OF THE STOMACH IS LIMITED TO A. DRUGS, ALCOHOL AND LIPIDS B. WATER, CARBOHYDRATES, DRUGS AND ALCOHOL C. WATER, CARBOHYDRATES AND ALCOHOL |
C. WATER, CARBOHYDRATES AND ALCOHOL |
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ACCESSORY ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT INCLUDE A. TEETH, TONGUE, SALIVARY GLANDS, LIVER, GALLBLADDER AND PANCREAS B. LIVER, SMALL INTESTINE, LARGE INTESTINE, GALLBLADDER AND TEETH C. TONGUE, SMALL INTESTINE, LARGE INTESTINE AND SALIVARY GLANDS D. TEETH, SALIVARY GLANDS, LUNGS, LIVER, GALLBLADDER AND PANCREAS |
A. TEETH, TONGUE, SALIVARY GLANDS, LIVER, GALLBLADDER AND PANCREAS |
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THE OESOPHAGUS IS INVOLVED IN BOTH CHEMICAL DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION. TRUE OR FALSE? |
FALSE |
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THE MICROSCOPIC FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF THE KIDNEY IS A. NEPHRON B. RENAL CORPUSCLE C. ARTERIOLE D. PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE |
A. NEPHRON |
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FLUID THAT ENTERS THE CAPSULAR SPACE IS KNOWN AS A. GLOMERULAR FILTRATE B. NEPHRON FILTRATE C. ULTRAFILTRATION |
A. GLOMERULAR FILTRATE |
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OTHER THAN URINE, SEMEN IS ALSO DISCHARGED THROUGH THE MALE URETHRA. TRUE OR FALSE? |
TRUE |
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WHAT IS THE TYPICAL VOLUME OF FILTRATE FORMED IN A 24 HOUR PERIOD? A. 150-180L B. 1-2L C. 5-6L D. 1-20ML |
A. 150-180L |
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WHAT IS THE TYPICAL URINARY OUTPUT IN A 24 HOUR PERIOD? A. 1-20ML B. 5-6L C. 1-2L D. 150-180L |
C. 1-2L |
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URINE CONTAINS ________WATER AND ______SOLUTES A. 25% WATER, 75% SOLUTES B. 95% WATER, 5% SOLUTES C. 90% WATER, 10% SOLUTES D. 50% WATER, 50% SOLUTES |
B. 95% WATER, 5% SOLUTES |
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THE PRESENCE OF RED BLOOD CELLS IN THE URINE IS KNOWN AS A. ALBUMINURIA B. HAEMOGLOBINURIA C. PYURIA D. HAEMATURIA |
D. HAEMATURIA |
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WHICH HAS GREATER SPECIFIC GRAVITY A. 1ML OF URINE B. 1ML OF DISTILLED WATER |
A. 1ML OF URINE |
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THE JUXTAMEDULLARY NEPHRONS HAVE SHORT NEPHRON LOOPS THAT DIP INTO THE SUPERFICIAL REGION OF THE RENAL MEDULLA. TRUE OR FALSE? |
FALSE |
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THE DELICATE LAYER ON THE SURFACE OF THE KIDNEY IS CALLED THE A. RENAL HILUM B. RENAL CAPSULE C. RENAL MEDULLA D. RENAL CORTEX |
B. RENAL CAPSULE |
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TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM IN THE URINARY SYSTEM LINES THE BLADDER AND A. NEPHRONS B. GLOMERULI C. URETERS |
C. URETERS |
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WHICH IS THE CORRECT ORDER OF BLOOD FLOW? A. RENAL ARTERY - SEGMENTAL ARTERY - INTERLOBULAR ARTERY - PERITUBULAR CAPILLARIES - AFFERENT ARTERIOLES B. INTERLOBAR ARTERIES - ARCUATE ARTERIES - GLOMERULAR CAPILLARIES - ARCUATE VEINS C. ARCUATE VEINS - ARCUATE ARTERIES - GLOMERULAR CAPILLARIES - RENAL VEIN D. RENAL VEIN - SEGMENTAL ARTERIES - INTERLOBAR ARTERIES - EFFERENT ARTERIOLES E. INTERLOBAR VEINS - AFFERENT ARTERIOLES - EFFERENT ARTERIOLES - GLOMERULAR CAPILLARIES. |
B. INTERLOBAR ARTERIES - ARCUATE ARTERIES - GLOMERULAR CAPILLARIES - ARCUATE VEINS |
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ANTIOXIDANT VITAMINS A. ARE FOUND IN PLASMA MEMBRANES B. ARE VITAMIN DERIVATIVES C. CAN INACTIVATE OXYGEN FREE RADICALS D. ARE ALL EXCRETED IN FAECES E. ARE ALL STORED IN ADIPOSE CELLS |
C. CAN INACTIVATE OXYGEN FREE RADICALS |
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WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING IS NOT A MAJOR NUTRIENT THE BODY NEEDS? A. CARBOHYDRATES B. PHOSPHATES C. PROTEINS D. MINERALS E. VITAMINS |
B. PHOSPHATES |
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SALIVATION IS CONTROLLED BY A. PEPSIN B. BILE C. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM D. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM |
D. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM |
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CORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE STIMULATES THE SECRETION OF A. ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE B. CALCITONIN C. HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE D. ANGIOTENSINOGEN |
A. ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE |
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THE FUNCTIONS OF INSULIN-LIKE GROWTH FACTORS INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING EXCEPT A. CAUSE CELLS TO GROW AND MULTIPLY BY INCREASING UPTAKE OF AMINO ACIDS INTO CELLS B. ENHANCE LIPOLYSIS IN ADIPOSE TISSUE C. HELP MAINTAIN MUSCLE AND BONE MASS D. DECREASE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS E. PROMOTE HEALING OF INJURIES AND TISSUE REPAIR |
D. DECREASE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS |
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THE PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULES REABSORB WHAT PERCENTAGE OF FILTERED WATER? A. 25% B. 50% C. 65% D. 80% E. 99% |
C. 65% |
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WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING SMALL INTESTINE CELLS SECRETE LYSOZOME? A. GOBLET CELLS B. ABSORPTIVE CELLS C. MUCOSA CELLS D. PANETH CELLS E. ENTEROENDOCRINE CELLS |
D. PANETH CELLS |
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THE HARD PALATE A. IS AN ARCH-SHAPED MUSCULAR PARTITION B. FORMS THE POSTERIOR PORTION OF THE ROOF OF THE MOUTH C. IS FORMED BY THE MANDIBLE D. IS THE ANTERIOR PORTION OF THE ROOF OF THE MOUTH |
D. IS THE ANTERIOR PORTION OF THE MOUTH |
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HOW MANY STAGES OF DEGLUTITION ARE THERE? A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5 E. 8 |
B. 3 |
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THE PRINCIPAL BILE PIGMENT IS A. STERCOBILIN B. BILIRUBIN C. BILIVERDIN D. WATER |
B. BILIRUBIN |
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GLYCOLYSIS TAKES PLACE WITHIN THE A. CYTOSOL B. PLASMA MEMBRANE C. NUCLEUS D. MITOCHONDRIA E. GOLGI APPARATUS |
A. CYTOSOL |
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TESTOSTERONE IS A. RESPONSIBLE FOR OVULATION B. PREPARING THE MAMMARY GLANDS FOR LACTATION C. THE PRIMARY FEMALE SEX HORMONE D. THE PRIMARY MALE SEX HORMONE |
D. THE PRIMARY MALE SEX HORMONE |
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WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING PANCREATIC ENZYMES ACTS ON GLYCOGEN AND STARCHES? A. CHYMOTRYPSIN B. PANCREATIC AMYLASE C. TRYPSIN D. PHOSPHATASE E. PANCREATIC LIPASE |
B. PANCREATIC AMYLASE |
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TWO CLASSES OF HORMONES ARE A. LIPID-SOLUBLE AND RELEASING HORMONES B. CARBOHYDRATE SOLUBLE AND WATER-SOLUBLE C. LIPID SOLUBLE AND WATER SOLUBLE D. TROPIC HORMONES AND RELEASING HORMONES |
C. LIPID SOLUBLE AND WATER SOLUBLE |
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PROVITAMINS ARE A. RAW MATERIALS OF VITAMINS B. BROKEN DOWN GLUCOSE MOLECULES C. DERIVATIVES OF MINERALS D. FOUND ONLY IN THE BLOOD E. NOT STORED IN THE BODY |
A. RAW MATERIALS OF VITAMINS |
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THE DIGESTIVE AID, PRODUCED BY THE STOMACH, BEGINS DIGESTION BY DENATURING PROTEINS A. BICARBONATE ION B. MUCOUS C. BILE D. HYDROCHLORIC ACID E. WATER |
D. HYDROCHLORIC ACID |
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WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING DIGESTIVE JUICES FUNCTIONS TO EMULSIFY DIETARY FATS? A. SALIVA B. HYDROCHLORIC ACID C. BILE D. INSULIN E. PEPSIN |
C. BILE |
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HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE PROMOTES THE SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION OF A. FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE B. PROLACTIN C. OXYTOCIN D. INSULINLIKE GROWTH FACTORS |
D. INSULINLIKE GROWTH FACTORS |
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WHICH ENZYME CONVERTS ANGIOTENSINOGEN, A PLASMA PROTEIN PRODUCED BY THE LIVER, INTO ANGIOTENSIN I A. ANGIOTENSIN CONVERTING ENZYME B. PHOSPHODIESTERASE C. ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE D. RENIN E. ADENYLATE CYCLASE |
D. RENIN |
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THE HARD PALATE A. IS THE ANTERIOR PORTION OF THE ROOF OF THE MOUTH B. IS FORMED BY THE MAXILLAE AND PALATINE BONES C. IS COVERED BY A MUCOUS MEMBRANE D. IS THE ANTERIOR PORTION OF THE ROOF OF THE MOUTH, FORMED BY THE MAXILLAE AND PALATINE BONES E. ALL OF THE ABOVE |
Test says A but Patrick say E and book says D |
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WHEN THE EFFECT OF TWO HORMONES ACTING TOGETHER IS GREATER THAN THE EFFECT OF EACH HORMONE ACTING ALONE, THE TWO HORMONES ARE SAID TO HAVE A A. PERMISSIVE EFFECT B. RESTRICTIVE EFFECT C. SYNERGISTIC EFFECT D. ANTAGONISTIC EFFECT E. CUMULATIVE EFFECT |
C. SYNERGISTIC EFFECT |
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WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING IS NOT A FUNCTION OF THE LARGE INTESTINE? A. MECHANICAL DIGESTION B. CHEMICAL DIGESTION C. ABSORPTION D. FAECES FORMATION E. REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE |
E. REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE |
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THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT IS REGULATED BY WHICH SET OF INTRINSIC NERVES? A. INTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM B. EXOCRINE NERVOUS SYSTEM C. ENDOCRINE NERVOUS SYSTEM D. ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM |
D. ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM |
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HUMANS HAVE TWO DENTITIONS OR SETS OF TEETH. THEY ARE A. DECIDUOUS TEETH AND PERMANENT TEETH B. SECONDARY TEETH AND TERTIARY TEETH C. CUSPIDS AND CANINES D. FIRST AND SECOND MOLARS |
A. DECIDUOUS TEETH AND PERMANENT TEETH |
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WHICH ADRENAL MEDULLA HORMONE ENHANCES THE EFFECTS OF SYMPATHETIC DIVISION OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM DURING STRESS? A. EPINEPHRINE B. CORTISOL C. ALDOSTERONE D. ANDROGENS E. ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE |
A. EPINEPHRINE |
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IN THE MOUTH, THE TOOTH SOCKETS ARE LINED WITH A. GINGIVAE B. CEMENTUM C. PERIODONTAL LIGAMENT D. PULP E. ROOT |
C. PERIODONTAL LIGAMENT |
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WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING IS A FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMIN? A. VITAMIN B B. VITAMIN E C. VITAMIN C D. VITAMIN O E. NONE OF THE ABOVE |
B. VITAMIN E |
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WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES STIMULATES SECRETION OF OESTROGENS AND PROGESTERONE, OVULATION AND FORMATION OF CORPUS LUTEUM IN FEMALES? A. THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE B. LUTEINIZING HORMONE C. FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE D. PROLACTIN E. ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE |
B. LUTEINIZING HORMONE |
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THE PORTION OF THE KIDNEY THAT EXTENDS BETWEEN THE RENAL PYRAMIDS IS CALLED THE A. RENAL COLUMNS B. RENAL MEDULLA C. RENAL PELVIS D. CALYCES E. RENAL PAPILLA |
A. RENAL COLUMNS |
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LUTEINIZING HORMONE TRIGGERS A. SPERM PRODUCTION B. OVULATION C. MILK PRODUCTION D. ALL OF THE ABOVE |
B. OVULATION |
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ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE DOES NOT A. ENHANCE SMOOTH MUSCLE CONTRACTION IN THE UTERINE WALL TO FACILITATE LABOUR AND DELIVERY B. DECREASE URINE VOLUME C. DECREASE WATER LOSS THROUGH SWEATING D. CAUSE CONSTRICTION OF ARTERIOLES TO INCREASE BLOOD PRESSURE |
A. ENHANCE SMOOTH MUSCLE CONTRACTION IN THE UTERINE WALL TO FACILITATE LABOUR AND DELIVERY |
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WHEN A HORMONE IS PRESENT IN EXCESSIVE LEVELS, THE NUMBER OF TARGET-CELL RECEPTORS MAY DECREASE. THIS IS CALLED A. RECEPTOR RECOGNITION B. CIRCULATING HORMONE C. PARACRINE D. UP REGULATION E. DOWN REGULATION |
E. DOWN REGULATION |
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CHEMICAL REACTIONS THAT BREAK DOWN COMPLEX ORGANIC MOLECULES INTO SIMPLER ONES ARE CALLED ______________ A. METABOLISM B. ANABOLISM C. CATABOLISM D. METATHESES E. OXIDATION REACTIONS |
C. CATABOLISM |
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WHICH HORMONE IS STIMULATED BY HIGH LEVELS OF DIETARY FAT AND AMINO ACIDS IN THE SMALL INTESTINE? A. PEPSIN B. SECRETIN C. GASTRIN D. CHOLECYSTOKININ E. AMYLASE |
D. CHOLECYSTOKININ |
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WHICH HORMONE RELEASED FROM THE HYPOTHALAMUS STIMULATES THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY TO SECRETE ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE? A. THYROTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE B. GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE C. CORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE D. PROLACTIN-RELEASING HORMONE E. GROWTH HORMONE RELEASING HORMONE |
C. CORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE |
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WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING CELLS SECRETE HYDROCHLORIC ACID? A. MUCOUS CELLS B. PARIETAL CELLS C. CHIEF CELLS D. SEROSA CELLS E. CHYME CELLS |
B. PARIETAL CELLS |
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THE _________ CELLS PRODUCE PARATHYROID HORMONE, THE MAJOR REGULATOR OF CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM, AND PHOSPHATE IONS IN THE BLOOD A. FOLLICULAR B. PARAFOLLICULAR C. OXYPHIL D. CHIEF E. ALPHA |
D. CHIEF |
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WHICH STRUCTURE OF THE NEPHRON REABSORBS THE MOST SUBSTANCES? A. GLOMERULAR CAPSULE B. LOOP OF HENLE C. ASCENDING LIMB D. COLLECTING DUCT E. PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE |
E. PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE |
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INCREASED SECRETION OF ALDOSTERONE WOULD RESULT IN A _________ OF BLOOD ________. A. INCREASE, POTASSIUM B. DECREASE, VOLUME C. INCREASE, CALCIUM LEVELS D. DECREASE, pH E. INCREASE, SODIUM |
E. INCREASE, SODIUM |
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THE __________ IS A LAYER OF THE GI TRACT THAT IS COMPOSED OF AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE AND SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM. A. SEROSA B. SUBMUCOSA C. MUSCULARIS D. MUCOSA E. MALT |
A. SEROSA |
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WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING STRUCTURES DIVIDES THE LIVER INTO 2 PRINCIPAL LOBES? A. CORONARY LIGAMENT B. FALCIFORM LIGAMENT C. ROUND LIGAMENT D. KUPFFER LIGAMENT E. BILE DUCTULES |
B. FALCIFORM LIGAMENT |
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WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING LISTS THE ACTION OF WATER-SOLUBLE HORMONES IN SEQUENCED ORDER? A. BINDING OF HORMONE TO ITS RECEPTOR, ATP CONVERTED TO CAMP, CAMP ACTIVATE CERTAIN ENZYMES, ACTIVATED ENZYMES CATALYZE REACTIONS THAT PRODUCE PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES, CAMP INACTIVATED. B. BINDING OF HORMONE TO ITS RECEPTOR,CAMP ACTIVATE CERTAIN ENZYMES,ACTIVATED ENZYMES CATALYZE REACTIONS THAT PRODUCE PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE, ATP CONVERTED TO CAMP,CAMP INACTIVATED. C. ATP CONVERTED TO CAMP,BINDING OF HORMONE TO ITS RECEPTOR,CAMP ACTIVATE CERTAIN ENZYMES,ACTIVATED ENZYMES CATALYZE REACTIONS THAT PRODUCE PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES,CAMP INACTIVATED. D. BINDING OF HORMONE TO ITS RECEPTOR,CAMP ACTIVATE CERTAIN ENZYMES,ATP CONVERTED TO CAMP,ACTIVATED ENZYMES CATALYZE REACTIONS THAT PRODUCE PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES,CAMP INACTIVATED. E. ATP CONVERTED TO CAMP,CAMP ACTIVATE CERTAIN ENZYMES,ACTIVATED ENZYMES CATALYZE REACTIONS THAT PRODUCE PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES,BINDING OF HORMONE TO ITS RECEPTOR,CAMP INACTIVATED. |
A. BINDING OF HORMONE TO ITS RECEPTOR, ATP CONVERTED TO CAMP, CAMP ACTIVATE CERTAIN ENZYMES, ACTIVATED ENZYMES CATALYZE REACTIONS THAT PRODUCE PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES, CAMP INACTIVATED.
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WHICH HORMONE IS STIMULATED BY DECREASING LEVELS OF BLOOD GLUCOSE? A. INSULIN B. LUTEINIZING HORMONE C. GLUCAGON D. PARATHYROID HORMONE E. CALCITONIN |
C. GLUCAGON |
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THESE ARE COMPOSED OF PROMINENT LYMPHATIC NODULES THAT FUNCTION IN THE IMMUNE RESPONSE. A. MUCOSA B. LAMINA PROPRIA C. MUSCULARIS D. SUBMUCOSA E. SEROSA |
B. LAMINA PROPRIA |
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THE SMALL INTESTINE IS DIVIDED INTO THREE SEGMENTS CALLED A. DUODENUM, JEJUNUM, ILEUM B. CECUM, COLON AND ILEUM C. DUODENUM, CECUM AND ILEUM D. COLON, ILEUM AND DUODENUM |
A. DUODENUM, JEJUNUM, ILEUM |
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WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING HORMONES OPPOSES THE ACTION OF PARATHYROID HORMONE? A. THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE B. TESTOSTERONE C. INSULIN D. CALCITONIN E. CALCITRIOL |
D. CALCITONIN |
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THE ENZYMES IN PANCREATIC JUICE INCLUDE ALL THE FOLLOWING EXCEPT A. AMYLASE B. LIPASE C. CARBOXYPEPTIDASE D. CHYMOTRYPSIN E. PEPSIN |
E. PEPSIN |
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HOW MANY PERMANENT TEETH DO HUMANS HAVE? A. 16 B. 32 C. 30 D. 34 |
B. 32 |
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LATERAL TO THE BASE OF THE UVULA IN THE MOUTH THIS MUSCULAR FOLD RUNS POSTERIORLY DOWN THE LATERAL SIDES OF THE SOFT PALATE TO THE PHARYNX A. UVULA B. PALATOGLOSSAL ARCH C. PALATOPHARYNGEAL ARCH D. PAROTID GLANDS E. SUBLINGUAL GLANDS |
C. PALATOPHARYNGEAL ARCH |
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THE HORMONE GASTRIN STIMULATES THE RELEASE OF A. GLUCOSE B. BILE C. CHYME D. GASTRIC JUICES |
D. GASTRIC JUICES |
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WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING PANCREATIC ENZYMES ACTS ON PEPTIDE BONDS A. CHYMOTRYPSIN B. AMYLASE C. PEPSIN D. PHOSPHATASE E. NUCLEOSIDASE |
A. CHYMOTRYPSIN |
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HOW LONG CAN FOOD STAY IN THE FUNDUS BEFORE BEING MIXED WITH GASTRIC JUICES? A. 10 MINUTES B. 20 MINUTES C. 30 MINUTES D. 45 MINUTES E. 1 HOUR |
E. 1 HOUR |
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WHERE DOES THE KREB'S CYCLE TAKE PLACE? A. CYTOSOL B. PLASMA MEMBRANE C. NUCLEUS D. MITOCHONDRIA E. GOLGI APPARATUS |
D. MITOCHONDRIA |
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PARATHYROID HORMONE IS THE MAJOR REGULATOR OF WHICH IONS IN THE BLOOD? A. CALCIUM B. SODIUM C. POTASSIUM D. CHLORIDE E. MANGANESE |
A. CALCIUM |
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THIS LAYER OF THE GI TRACT IS COMPOSED OF AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE THAT BINDS THE MUCOSA TO THE MUSCULARIS A. SUBMUCOSA B. LAMINA PROPRIA C. EPITHELIUM D. SEROSA E. NONE OF THE ABOVE |
A. SUBMUCOSA |
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WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING LIPOPROTEINS FORMS WITHIN THE ABSORPTIVE EPITHELIAL CELLS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE AND TRANSPORTS DIETARY LIPIDS? A. APOPROTEINS B. LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS C. CHYLOMICRONS D. VERY LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS E. HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS |
C. CHYLOMICRONS |
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WHAT CONTROLS THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND? A. CHEMICAL SIGNALS FROM THE BLOOD B. THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM C. ACTION OF HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES D. ACTION POTENTIALS FROM THE THALAMUS E. CHEMICAL CHANGES IN CSF |
C. ACTION OF HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES |
