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210 Cards in this Set
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Heredity Genes and Regulations |
Lecture 15 |
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What are germ cells |
egg or sperm |
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what is the purpose of meiosis |
reduce the number of chromosomes by half |
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Meiosis is a type of nuclear division found |
only in germ cell production for sexual reproduciton |
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What is Meiosis 1 |
reduction division - chromosomes are halved |
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what is meiosis II |
similar to mitosis -After cell division, they produce two new cells -each cell contains a haploid number of single stranded chromosomes |
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how is genetic diversity insured |
by crossing over paired homologous chromosomes |
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What are the 5 steps of meiosis 1 |
interphase prophase metaphase anophase telophase |
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Key events of meiosis 2 are |
chromosomes align sister chromatids segregate |
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steps of meiosis 2 |
prophase II MetaphaseII anaphase II telophase II haploid daughter cells |
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in males how many gametes are produced during meiosis |
4 |
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what is spermatogenesis |
process of starting with one spermatogonium and end with 4 sperm cells |
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how many gametes are produced by females during meiosis |
1 |
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what did gregor mendel do |
provide early knowledge on heredity discovered traits did not blend parents contributed equally principle of dominance |
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what is the principle of dominance |
a dominant factor masks a recessive factor a recessive factor is expressed only when the dominant factor is missing the dominant and recessive gens are alternative forms of the gene or alleles |
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what three genetic combinations are possible fora given trait |
heterozygous - dominant and recessive alleles homozygous - dominant homozygous - recessive |
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what is the genotype of an organism |
its genetic make up |
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what is the phenotype of an organism |
its appearance |
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how can you determine genotypes and phenotypes |
through pungent square analysis |
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what is the principle of independent assortment |
gense on different chromosomes segregate independently of one another during gamete formation |
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how many chromosomes do human cells contain |
46 chromosomes 22 identical paired autosomes and 1 sex |
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autosomal - recessive traits are expressed only when both alleles are |
recessive |
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autosomal dominant traits are expressed in |
all individuals |
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what are variations in mendelian genetics |
incomplete dominance which results in blending of traits called partial dominance |
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can genes have multiple alleles |
yes - they result in more genotypes and phenotypes in a population |
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what is polygenic inheritance |
when traits are determined by more than one gene pair |
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XX chromosomes means the person is a
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female |
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XY chromosomes means the person is a |
male |
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a trait determined bya gene on a sex chromosome is a
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sex linked triat |
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most sex linked traits occur on the _____ chromosomes |
X |
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what may cause a abnormal chromosome number |
failure of chromosomes to separate during gamete formation |
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Non disjunction ( improper speration of chromosomes) results in |
aneuploidy |
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the loss of a piece of chromosome is called |
deletions |
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breakage of a chromosome followed by reattachment elsewhere is called |
translocations |
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Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology |
L 16 |
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what is genetic engineering |
a procedure by which geneticists remove segments of DNA from one organism and insert them into the DNA of another |
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Transgenic referes to the result of |
genetically modified organism |
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in recombinant DNA technology genes are |
removed from one organism then spliced into another of the same or a different species
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Reverse transcription referes to |
the extraction of messenger RNA from cells and using it to make DNA |
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mRNA allows genes to be |
mass produced |
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Polymerase chain reaction allows for |
gense to be mass produced |
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what are the steps of polymerase chain reaction |
part of the DNA double helix is extracted and heated to split the strands then cooled enzymes are added to catalyze new DNA formulation |
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cloning is defined by |
a process in which an identical copy is made through the use of DNA from one organism and cells from another egg+somatic donor cell = embryo |
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How can gene therapy be used in medicine |
cure genetic disease |
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chromosomes, cell division, the cell cylce |
L 17 |
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Chromosomes |
Human body contains 46 chromosomes |
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where are chromosomes located |
in the nucleus |
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all body cells except the germ cells are called |
somatic cells |
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somatic cells contain |
a full complement of chromosomes and are described a diploid |
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germ cells contain |
half the number of chromosomes of somatic cells and are referred to as haploid cells |
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condensed chromosomes are metabolically |
inactive |
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decondensed chromosomes are metabolically |
active |
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number of chromatids in chromosomes |
varies |
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each somatic cell contains ___ of the same chromosome |
2 - one paternal and one maternal |
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what are the two parts of the cell cycle
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interphase cell division or M phase (Mitosis) |
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what is interphase |
divided into 3 parts : G1, S, G2 G1 - cells produce RNA, Proteins, and there molecules (8 to 10 hrs) During S the DNA replicates (6 to 8 Hours) During G2, mitochondria divide and precursors of the spindle fibers form (4 to 6 hours) |
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What are two separate processes during cell divines |
Mitosis - nuclear division Cytoplamsic division |
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4 stages of mitosis |
prophase metaphase anaphase telophase
happens in les than 1 hour |
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centrioles replicate during interphase and |
play a key role in mitosis |
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centrioles help to |
organize spinale fibers that align and divide the chromosomes |
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in prophase |
chromosomes condense nuclear envelope disappears centrioles divide and migrate to opposite poles spindle fibers form and attach to chromosomes |
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in metaphase |
chromosomes line up on equatorial plate of the dividing cells |
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in anaphase |
chromosomes begin to separate |
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in telophase |
chromosomes migrate or are puled to opposite poles karyokinesis completes new nuclear envelopes form chromosomes until |
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what is cytokinesis |
the division of the cytoplasm, |
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some cells such as _____ don't participate in cell cycle |
cardiac cells and blood cells |
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different cell types complete the cell cycle in ___amounts of time |
different |
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can chromosomes be analyzed |
yes if the cell cycle is stopped while the chromosomes are separated |
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Cancer |
L 18 |
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what is the leading cause of death in the us |
cancer |
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how many types of cancer are there |
more than 100 |
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our bodies produce cancerous cells each day but |
most are killed by immune system |
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cancer cells have limited potential to replicate because |
they avoid apoptosis (programmed cell death due to broken DNA) |
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Cancer cells have |
no homeostatic function in the body and have abnormal nuclei and chromosomes |
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benign tumors ___ growing |
stop |
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malignant tumors ______ gowing and _____ |
don't stop growing and spread to other parts of the body |
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what is metastasis |
the movement of cancerous cells from one part of the body to the other |
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what causes cancer |
the loss in cell cycle control due to over-ridden checkpoints that are usually regulated by cyclins |
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steps of cancer forming |
conversion - mutation caused by a chemical, biological, or physical agent development and progression - a promoter stimulates the cell to proliferate uncontrollably |
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what two genes typically have mutations that result in cancer |
proto-oncogenes - control functions related to cell replication tumor suppressor genes - naturally inhibit cell growth |
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what external factors can cause cancer |
physical or biological agents such as X-rays, radiation, viruses carcinogens - agents that cause cancer by altering dan |
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the period between exposure and emergence of cancer is called the |
latent period |
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the most common type of cancer in men and women is |
skin cancer |
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how to cure cancer |
surgical removal chemotherapy and radiation stimulating body to produce antibodies drug combination with radiation herbal cures |
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what allows for the best chance of cancer treatment cure |
catching cancer early avoid cancer related factors such as carcinogens, uv radiation and poor diet/exercise |
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Reproductive System |
L 19 |
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Body functions required for successful reproduction |
anatomical, physiological, biochemical, metabolic, hormonal, neuronal, psychological |
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female reproductive system consists of what two basic components |
reproductive tract (ovaries, uterus, oviducts, cervix, vaina) External genitalia |
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what are the functions of the ovaries |
produce female gametes (released every 28 days) produce reproductive hormones |
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what does the vulva consist of |
two folds of skin on both sides of the vaginal opening; The labia major and the labia minor also has the clitoris which consists of erectile tissue |
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during ovary germ cell production |
a follicle consists of a germ cell 12 follicles enlarge during a menstrual cycle, however only 1 usually fully develop |
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fraternal twins is possible if |
more than one egg ovulates |
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growth cycle of follicle (egg support cells) |
varies per organism (28 days for humans) |
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uterus consists of |
endometrium - lumen epithelium myometrium - smooth muscle perimetric - outer epithelial layer it is the site of fetal development and growth |
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oviducts consists of |
uterine tubes and fallopian tubes |
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purpose of oviducts is to |
transport sperm and egg in opposite directions to fertilize |
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oviducts consist of |
secretory and ciliated epithelium smooth muscle cells with highly convoluted folds |
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the menstrual cycle consists of |
cyclic physiologic changes in hormone levels, the uterus, and ovaries |
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what hormones allow for changes in ovary |
the pituitary gland |
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what hormones allow for changes in uterus |
ovarian hormones |
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estrous cycle is ___ in other mammals |
similar |
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male reproductive system consists of |
testes epididymis vasa deferens sex accessory glands urethra penis scrotum |
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sperm is produced in the |
tested |
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sperm is stored in the |
epididymis |
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muscles and vascular structures in testies regulate |
temperate |
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path of sperm during ejaculation |
sperm moves through the epididymal duct to the vas deferent to the urethra, where it exits body |
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semen consists of fluids produced by |
sex glands (prostate, bulbourethra glands and seminal veisicles |
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prior to the combination fluids semen is just called |
sperm |
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sperm ar eformed form special cells called |
spermatogonia |
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spermatogonia that undergo meiosis yield four cells called |
spermatids |
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spermatogenesis includes both |
meiosis and speriogenesis |
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acrosome helps |
digest coating surrounding ovum during fertilization |
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ejaculation is a ____ mechanism
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reflex |
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Component vs function testes |
produce perm and male sex steroids |
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Component vs function epididymis |
stores sperm |
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Component vs function vasa deferentia |
conduct sperm to urethra
d |
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Component vs function sex accessory glands |
produce seminal fluid that nourishes sperm |
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Component vs function urethra |
conducts sperm to outside |
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Component vs function penis |
organ copulation |
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Component vs function scrotum |
provides proper temp for testes |
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fertility, pregnancy & ARTs |
L 20 |
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fertilization usually occurs in the _____ of the oviduct |
upper third |
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very ___sperm make it to the site of fertilization |
few |
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sperm contains enzymes ____ that help penetrate protective layer |
cumulus cells zona pelucha |
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only ___ will fertilize an egg |
one sperm will fertilize and then block out all other sperm |
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polyspermic fertilization results in |
aneuploidy and embryocidal |
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development is divided into what 2 phases |
pre embryonic period (5%) Embryonic period (14%) Fetal period (81%) |
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pre embryonic development begins at ____ and ends just after _____ |
fertilization implantation |
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the zygote undergoes rapid cellular divines and forms |
a morula |
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the morula arrives in the uterus 3/4 days later and forms |
a fluid filled embryo |
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a blastocyst will then |
implant in the uterine walls 2-3 days later |
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blastocysts consists of 2 groups of cells that form |
a fluid filled embryo |
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the inner cell mass |
becomes the embryo |
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the trophoblast |
gives rise to the embryonic portion of the placenta |
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while placenta forms, a layer of cells from the ICM of the blastocyst operate and form |
amnion - providing protection and nutrients |
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implantation occurs ___ days after fertilization |
5 to 7 |
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implantation does not occur if
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the uterine endometrium is not ready, or unhealthy |
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an ectopic pregnancy is one in which |
the embryo implants in the uterine tubes |
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placental hormones are essential to maintain pregnancy and consist of |
human chorionic gonadotrophin estrogen progesterone |
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After amnion forms, the cells of the ICM differentiate into three germ cell layers ___ ____ ___ |
ectoderm - skin, nervous system
mesoderm - musculature connective tissue endoderm - gut, organs |
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the formation of three primary germ layers marks the beginning of embryonic development and is called |
gastrulation |
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fetal development begins in the ____ week of pregnancy |
8th |
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the fetal circulatory system contains of three bypasses around |
the lungs and liver |
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the umbilical cord |
carries blood and nutrients to and from the placenta |
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the ductus venous |
shunts blood from the umbilical vein directly to the inferior vena cava, bypassing the liver |
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the ductus arterioles |
also shunts blood away from the lungs |
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who decides it is time for child birth |
the fetus which changes hormonal levels |
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what hormones initiate events of childbirth by stimulating the release of prostaglandins by the placenta |
fetal oxytocin, adrenal hormones |
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maternal oxytocin and prostaglandins stimulate |
contraction in the sensitized uterine musculature |
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milk production is called |
lactation |
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lactation is controlled by hormone |
prolactin |
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milk production begins
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2/3 dyas after birth
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what doe breasts produce before milk production begins |
colostrum |
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colostrum allows for |
newborns to survive the first few days and help protect it from bacteria |
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lactation can be maintained for many months, however it will ____ if not used |
it will quickly stop |
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infertility can be caused by |
incompetent germ cells physical abnormalities hormonal metabolic abnormalities genetic abnormalities psychologica emotional status |
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ART stands for |
assisted reproductive technologies |
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what is the most common ART |
intracytoplamic sperm injection (ICSI) |
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rate of success for ARTs |
50% are unsuccessful |
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infertility rate and success rate of ART declines as |
age increase |
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Aging |
L 21 |
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What are two reasons for aging |
entropy - things fall apart - loss of cellular and organismal homeostatsis Antagonistic pleiotropy -free from selection pressure |
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organismal senescence is defined as |
the aging of a whole organism |
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organismal senescence is characterized by |
decline in the ability to respond to stress poor homeostasis increased risk of certain diseased |
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aging results from a decline in |
cell numbers within tissues and their related function |
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although aging plays a role in diseases contraction, it is also controlled by |
life style and status of the immune system |
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what is effected by aging |
all systems of the body |
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how can aging be delayed |
exercise and proper diet |
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effects of aging on the cardiovascular system |
reduced ability to pump blood hardening of arteries and high blood pressure |
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effects of agin on pulmonary system |
breakdown of alveoli |
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effects of agin on urinary system |
urinary incontinence decreased kidney function overall |
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effects of aging on the musculoskeletal system |
loss of mass and strength loss of muscle repair capacity loss of motor neurons accumulation of fat |
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effects of aging on bones and joints |
weak porous brittle joints become difficult to move |
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what is teratogen |
substance that contributes to developmental toxicity |
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what are agents of teratogenic |
alcohol radiation rubella benzene/led/tobacco |
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_____ live longer than ___ |
females live longer than males |
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what is senescence |
the combination of processes of deterioration |
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what are telomeres |
linear chromosome ends repeating conserved nucleotide sequence shortens with each cell division |
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terminally short tellers result in |
replicative senescene |
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what is apoptosis |
programmed cell death |
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does aging very by species |
yes |
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influences on life expectancy |
biological sex poverty environment exercise vices |
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human adaptations and ecosystem health |
l 22 |
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adaptation is the |
evolutionary process by which populations attain the ability to deter survive in a given environment |
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the fundamental basis of adaptation by all organisms is |
genetic variation |
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genetic variation in species arise due to |
mutations new combinations due to sexual reproduction |
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natural selection is |
a process by which organism become better adapted to their environment |
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human races result from variations caused by |
geographic seperations |
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the zone in which all life exists on earth is the |
biosphere |
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only outside contributer to the biosphere is the |
sun |
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ecosystems consist of |
organisms and their environment |
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their are two basic components of an ecosystem |
abiotic and biotic |
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abiotic components are the |
physical and chemical factors needed for life |
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biotic components are the |
organisms that live in an ecological system |
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a group of organisms of the same species living in a specific region is called a |
population |
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tow or more populations occupying a region form a |
community |
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a habitat is the |
physical space where an organism lives |
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a niche consists of |
all of an organisms relationships in an ecosystem |
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producers do what |
generate nutrients consumed by all other organisms |
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major producers are |
plants, photosynthetic protists and bacteria |
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consumers are |
organisms that depend on producers for food |
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four types of consumers are |
herbivores carnivores omnivores detritivores |
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food webs are |
food changes woven togetehr |
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two phases of the nutrient cycles |
organismic and environmental |
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organismic phase |
nutrients are found in the biota |
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in the environmental phase |
nutrient exists in the air water and soil |
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three important nutrient cycles are |
water cylce carbon cycle nitrogen cylce |
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sustainable society is one that lives within |
carrying capacity |
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a sustainable society is built on 5 principles |
conservation recycling renewable resources restoration population control |
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q |
q |
