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157 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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primates
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a type of mammal; primates include prosimians, tarsioids, and anthropoids (monkeys, apes, and humans)
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vertebrates
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animal having a backbone of bony segments, the vertebrae
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evolution
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genetic change within a line of descent over time. a population is evolving when some forms of a trait are becoming more or less common relative to the other kinds of traits. the shifts are evidence of changes in the relative abundances of alleles foe that trait, as brought about by mutation, natural selection, genetic drift and gene flow.
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scientific method
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1. observe some aspect of nature
2. ask a question about the observation or identify a problem to explore 3. develop a hypothesis 4. make a prediction 5. test the prediction 6. repeat the tests or develop new ones 7. analyze and report the test results and conclusions |
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controlled experiment
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an experiment that tests only one prediction of a hypothesis at a time
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variable
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in a scientific experiment, the only factor that is not the same in the experimental group as it is in the control croup
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control group
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in a scientific experiment a group used to evaluate possible side effects of a test involving an experimental group. Ideally, the control group should differ from the experimental group only with respect to the variable being studied.
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critical thinking
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objective evaluation of information
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infection
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invasion and multiplication of a pathogen in a host. disease follows if defenses are not mobilized fast enough, the pathogens activities interfere with normal body functions
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pathogens
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an infectious disease causing agent such as a virus or bacterium
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disease
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condition that develops when the body's defenses cannot prevent a pathogens activities from interfering with normal body functions
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emerging diseases
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disease caused by a new strain of an existing pathogen or one that is now exploiting an increased availability of human hosts
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antibiotic
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a normal metabolic product of certain microorganisms that kills or inhibits the growth of other microorganisms
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hypothesis
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possible explanation of a natural event or observation
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prediction
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proposal or claim of what testing will show if a hypothesis is correct
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experimental test
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controlled procedure to gather observations that can be compared to prediction
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conclusion
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statement that evaluates a hypothesis based on test results
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variable
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aspect of an object or event that may differ with time or between subjects
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isotope
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for a given element an atom with the same number of protons as the other atoms but with a different number of neutrons
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atom
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the smallest unit of matter that is unique to a particular element
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radioisotope
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an unstable atom that spontaneously decays to a new stable atom that is not radioactive
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tracer
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a substance with radioisotope attached to it so that its pathway or destination in a cell, organism, ecosystem, or some other system can be tracked, as by scintillation counters that detect its emissions
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chemical bond
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a union between the electron structures of two or more atoms
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molecule
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a unit of matter in which chemical bonding holds together two or more atoms of the same or different elements
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compounds
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a substance in which the relative proportions of two or more elements never vary. organic compounds have a backbone of carbons atoms arranged as a chain or ring structure. the simpler, inorganic compounds do not have comparable backbones.
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mixture
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atoms of two or more elements intermingled in proportions that can and usually do vary.
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ion
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an atom or a compound that has gained or lost one or more electrons and hence has acquired an over all negative or positive charge.
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ionic bond
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an association between ions of opposite charge
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hydrogen bond
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a weak attraction between an electronegative atom and a hydrogen atom that is already taking part in a polar covalent bond
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hydrophilic
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a polar substance that is attracted to the polar water molecule and so dissolves easily in water. sugars are examples.
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hydrophobic
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a nonpolar substance that is repelled by the polar water moecule and so does not readily dissolve in water. oil is an example.
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solvent
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fluid in which one or more substances is dissolved
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solute
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any substance dissolved in a solution. in water, this means spheres of hydration surround the charged parts of individual ions or molecules and keep them dispersed.
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free radicals
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any highly reactive molecule or molecule fragment having an unpaired electron
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antioxidant
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a chemical that can give up an electron to free radical before the free radical damages DNA or some other cell consitituent.
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hydrogen ions
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a free (unbound) proton, a hydrogen atom that has lost its electron and so bears a positive charge.
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hydroxide ions
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ionized compound of one oxygen and one hydrogen atom
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ph scale
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a scale used to measure the concentration of free hydrogen ions in blood, water, and other solutions, pH 0 is the most acidic, 14 the most basic, and 7 neutral.
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acid
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a substance that releases hydrogen ions in water
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base
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a substance that accepts H+ in water
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salts
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compound that releases ions other than H+ and OH- in solution
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buffer system
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a weak acid and the base that forms when it dissolves in water. the two work as a pair to counter flight shifts in ph
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organic compound
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a compound having a carbon backbone, often with carbon atoms arranged as a chain or ring structure, with at least one hydrogen atom
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functional group
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an atom or group of atoms that is covalently bonded to the carbon backbone of an organic compound and that influences its behavior
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enzymes
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one of a class of proteins that greatly speed up reactions between specific substances. the substances that each type of enzyme acts upon are called its substrates.
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condensation reaction
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chemical step in which two molecules become covalently bonded into a larger molecule, and water often forms as a by product.
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polymer
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a molecule composed of three to million of small subunits that may or may not be identical
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monomers
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a small molecule that is commonly a subunit of polymers such as the sugar monomers of starch
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hydrolysis
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enzyme drawing reaction in which covalent bonds break splitting a molecule into two or more parts, and H+ and OH- become attached to the exposed bonding sites
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carbohydrates
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a simple sugar or large molecule composed of sugar unites all cells use carbohydrates as structural materials, energy stores, and transportable forms of energy. the three classes of carbohydrates include monosaccharides, oligosccharides, and polysaccharides.
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monosaccharides
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the simplest carbohydrate, with only one sugar unit. glucose is an example
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polysaccharides
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a straight or branched chain of covalently bonded monomers of the same or different kinds of sugars. the most common polysaccharides are cellulose, starch, and glycogen.
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oligosaccharides
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a carbohydrate consisting of a short chain of two or more covalently bonded sugar units. one subclass, disaccharides, has two sugar units.
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lipid
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a greasy or oily compound of mostly carbon and hydrogen that shows little tendency to dissolve in water, but that dissolves in nonpolar solvents (such as ether) cells use lipids as energy stores and structural materials, especially in membranes.
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fats
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a lipid with a glycerol head and one, two, or three fatty acid tails. the tails of saturated fats have only single bonds between carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms attached to all other bonding sites. tails of unsaturated fats additionally have one or more double bonds between certain carbon attoms.
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fatty acid
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a long flexible hydrocarbon chain with a -COOH group at one end.
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triglycerides
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a lipid having three fatty acid tails attached to a glycerol backbone. triglycerides are the bodys most abundant lipids and richest energy source.
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phospholipid
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a type of lipid that is the main structural component of cell membranes each has a hyrophobic tail (of two fatty acids) and a hydrophilic head that incorporates glycerl and a phosphate group.
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sterols
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a type of lipid with a rigid backbone of four fused carbon rings. sterols occur in cell membranes cholesterol is the main type in human tissues.
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protein
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a large organic compound composed of one or more chain of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. protein have unique sequences of different kinds of amino acids in their polypeptide chains such sequences are the basis of a proteins three dimensional structure and chemical behavior.
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amino acid
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A small organic molecule having a hydrogen atom, an amino group, an acid group, and an R group covalently bonded to a central carbon atom. the subunit of polypeptide chains, which represent the primary structure of proteins.
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polypeptide chain
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three or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds
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lipoproteins
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molecule that forms when proteins circulating in blood combine with cholesterol, triglycerides, and phospholipids absorbed from the small intestine.
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glycoproteins
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a protein having oligosaccharides covalently bonded to it. most human cell surface proteins and many proteins circulating in blood are glycoproteins
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nucleotide
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a small organic compound having a five carbon sugar, nitrogen containing base and phosphate group. nucleotides are the structural units of adenosine phosphates, nucleotide coenzymes and nucleic acids
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ATP
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adenosine triphosphate, a nucleotide composed of adenine, ribose and three phosphate groups. as the main energy carrier in cells, it directly or indirectly delivers energy to or picks up energy from nearly all metabolic pathways.
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coenzymes
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a type of nucleotide that transfers hydrogen atoms and electrons from one reaction site to another. NAD+ is an example
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nucleic acids
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a long single or double stranded chain of four different nucleotides joined at their phosphate groups. nucleic acids differ in which nucleotide base follows the next in the sequence. DNA and RNA are examples.
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DNA
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Deoxyribonucleic acid. for all cells the molecule of inheritance. a category of nucleic acids, each usually consisting of two nucleotide strands twisted together helically and held together by hydrogen bonds. the nucleotide sequence encodes the instructions for assembling proteins and ultimately a new individual
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RNA
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ribonucleic acid. a category of single stranded nucleic acids that function in processes by which genetic instructions are used to build proteins
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genes
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a unit of information about a heritable trait that is passed on from parents to offspring. Each gene has a specific location on a chromosome. chemically, a gene is a sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule.
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locus
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the location of a particular gene on a chromosome
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allele
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for a given location on a chromosome, one of two or more slightly different chemical forms of a gene that code for different versions of the same trait
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homozygous condition
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having two identical alleles at a given locus (on a pair of homologous chromosomes)
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heterozygous condition
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for a given trait having nonidentical alleles at a particular locus on a pair of homologous chromosomes
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dominant
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in a diploid cell, an allele that masks the expression of its partner on the homologous chromosome.
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recessive
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allele whose expression in heterozygotes is fully or partially masked by expression of its partner fully expressed only in the homozygous recessive condition
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genotype
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genetic constitution of an individual, can mean a single gene pair or the sum total of the individuals genes.
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phenotype
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observable trait or traits of an individual; aries from interactions between genes and between genes and the environment.
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segregation
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the principle that diploid organisms inherit a pair of genes for each trait (on a pair of homologous chromosomes) and that the two genes segregate during meiosis and end up in separate gametes.
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monosaccharides
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the simplest carbohydrate, with only one sugar unit. glucose is an example
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polysaccharides
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a straight or branched chain of covalently bonded monomers of the same or different kinds of sugars. the most common polysaccharides are cellulose, starch, and glycogen.
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oligosaccharides
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a carbohydrate consisting of a short chain of two or more covalently bonded sugar units. one subclass, disaccharides, has two sugar units.
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lipid
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a greasy or oily compound of mostly carbon and hydrogen that shows little tendency to dissolve in water, but that dissolves in nonpolar solvents (such as ether) cells use lipids as energy stores and structural materials, especially in membranes.
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fats
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a lipid with a glycerol head and one, two, or three fatty acid tails. the tails of saturated fats have only single bonds between carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms attached to all other bonding sites. tails of unsaturated fats additionally have one or more double bonds between certain carbon attoms.
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fatty acid
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a long flexible hydrocarbon chain with a -COOH group at one end.
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triglycerides
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a lipid having three fatty acid tails attached to a glycerol backbone. triglycerides are the bodys most abundant lipids and richest energy source.
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phospholipid
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a type of lipid that is the main structural component of cell membranes each has a hyrophobic tail (of two fatty acids) and a hydrophilic head that incorporates glycerl and a phosphate group.
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sterols
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a type of lipid with a rigid backbone of four fused carbon rings. sterols occur in cell membranes cholesterol is the main type in human tissues.
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protein
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a large organic compound composed of one or more chain of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. protein have unique sequences of different kinds of amino acids in their polypeptide chains such sequences are the basis of a proteins three dimensional structure and chemical behavior.
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monosaccharides
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the simplest carbohydrate, with only one sugar unit. glucose is an example
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polysaccharides
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a straight or branched chain of covalently bonded monomers of the same or different kinds of sugars. the most common polysaccharides are cellulose, starch, and glycogen.
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oligosaccharides
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a carbohydrate consisting of a short chain of two or more covalently bonded sugar units. one subclass, disaccharides, has two sugar units.
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lipid
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a greasy or oily compound of mostly carbon and hydrogen that shows little tendency to dissolve in water, but that dissolves in nonpolar solvents (such as ether) cells use lipids as energy stores and structural materials, especially in membranes.
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fats
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a lipid with a glycerol head and one, two, or three fatty acid tails. the tails of saturated fats have only single bonds between carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms attached to all other bonding sites. tails of unsaturated fats additionally have one or more double bonds between certain carbon attoms.
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fatty acid
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a long flexible hydrocarbon chain with a -COOH group at one end.
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triglycerides
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a lipid having three fatty acid tails attached to a glycerol backbone. triglycerides are the bodys most abundant lipids and richest energy source.
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phospholipid
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a type of lipid that is the main structural component of cell membranes each has a hyrophobic tail (of two fatty acids) and a hydrophilic head that incorporates glycerl and a phosphate group.
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sterols
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a type of lipid with a rigid backbone of four fused carbon rings. sterols occur in cell membranes cholesterol is the main type in human tissues.
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protein
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a large organic compound composed of one or more chain of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. protein have unique sequences of different kinds of amino acids in their polypeptide chains such sequences are the basis of a proteins three dimensional structure and chemical behavior.
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genes
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a unit of information about a heritable trait that is passed on from parents to offspring. Each gene has a specific location on a chromosome. Chemically a gene is a sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule.
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locus
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the location of a particular gene on a chromosome
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allele
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for a given location on a chromosome one of two or more slightly different chemical forms of a gene that code for different versions of the same trait
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homozygous condition
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having two identical alleles at a given locus (on a pair of homologous chromosomes)
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heterozygous condition
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for a given trait, having nonidentical alleles at a particular locus on a pair of homologous chromosomes.
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dominant
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in a diploid cell, an allele that masks the expression of its partner on the homologous chromosome.
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recessive
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allele whose expression in heterozygotes is fully or partially masked by expression of its partner fully expressed only in the homozygous recessive condition
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genotype
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genetic constitution of an individual. can mean a single gene pair or the sum total of the individuals genes.
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phenotype
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observable trait or traits of an individual, arises from interactions between genes, and between genes and the environment
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segregation
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the principle that diploid organisms inherit a pair of genes for each trait (on a pair of homologous chromosomes) and that the two genes segregate during meiosis and end up in separate gametes.
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probability
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with respect to any chance event, the most likely number of times it will turn out a certain way, divided by the total number of all possible outcomes.
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punnett square
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a method to predict the probable outcome of a mating or an experimental cross in a simple diagram
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testcross
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in genetics an experimental cross to reveal whether an organism is homozygous dominant or heterozygous for a trait. the organism showing dominance is crossed to an individual known to be homozygous recessive for the same trait.
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independent assortment
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genetic principle that each gene pair tends to assort into gametes independently of other gene pairs located on nonhomologous chromosomes.
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pleiotropy
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a type of gene interaction in which a single gene exerts multiple effects on seemingly unrelated aspects of an individuals phenotype.
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sickle cell anemia
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an inherited disorder in which red blood cells are shaped like sickles, impeding their ability to carry oxygen
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co dominance
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condition in which a pair of nonidentical alleles are both expressed even though they specify two different phenotypes.
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multiple allele system
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a gene that has three or more different molecular forms (alleles)
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penetrance
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in a given population, the percentage of individuals in which a particular genotype is expressed (that is the percentage of individuals who have the genotype and also exhibit the corresponding phenotype)
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polygenic traits
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trait that results from the combined expression of several genes
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continuous variation
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a more or less continuous range of small differences in a given trait among all the individuals of a population
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multifactorial trait
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a trait that is shaped by more than one gene as well as by environmental factors
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nucleotides
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a small organic compound having a five carbon sugar, nitrogen containing base and phosphate group. nucleotides are the structural units of adenosine phosphates, nucleotide coenzymes and nucleic acids
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base pairs
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a pair of hydrogen-bonded nucleotide bases in two strands of nucleic acids. in a DNA double helix, adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine with cytosine, When an mRNA strand forms on a DNA strand during transcription, uracil (U) pairs with the DNA adenine.
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nucleotide sequence
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the order of nucleotides in a gene, it codes for a specific polypeptide chain.
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DNA sequencing
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a process that provides information about genes, including their size, their location on chromosomes, and the order of their nucleotides.
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plasmids
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liquid portion of blood; consists of water various proteins ions sugars dissolved gases and other substances
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genome
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al the DNA in a haploid number of chromosomes of a species
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polymerase chain reaction
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DNA amplification method, DNA containing a gene of interest is split into single strands which enzymes copy, the enzymes also act on the accumulating copies, multiplying the gene sequence by the millions.
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genetic engineering
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altering the information content of DNA through use of recombinant DNA technology
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DNA sequencing
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a process that provides information about genes, including their size, their location on chromosomes, and the order of their nucleotides
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DNA chip
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a microarray of thousands of DNA sequences that are stamped onto a glass plate, can help identify mutations and diagnose diseases by pinpointing which genes are silent and which are being expressed in a body tissue
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gene therapy
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generally the transfer of one or more normal genes into body cells in order to correct a genetic defect
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DNA fingerprint
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of each individual a unique array of RFLPs resulting from the DNA sequences inherited from each parent.
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hyperplasia
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an abnormal enlargement of tissue that leads to a tumor
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tumor
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a tissue mass composed of cells that are dividing at an abnormally high rate.
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dysplasia
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an abnormal change in the sizes, shapes, and organization of cells in a tissue
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cancer
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a malignant tumor, the cells of which show profound abnormalities in the plasma membrane and cytoplasm, abnormal growth and division and weakened capacity for adhesion within the parent tissue (leading to metastasis) unless eradicated, cancer is lethal.
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metastasis
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the process in which cancer cells break away from a primary tumor and migrate (via blood or lymphatic tissues) to other locations, where they establish new cancer sties.
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carcinogenesis
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the transformation of a normal cell into a cancerous one
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proto-oncogenes
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a gene similar to an oncogene but that codes for a protein required in a normal cell function may trigger cancer, generally when mutations alter its structure or function
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oncogene
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a gene that has the potential to induce cancerous transformations in a cell
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tumor suppressor gene
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a gene whose protein product operates to keep cell growth and division within normal bounds, or whose product has a role in keeping cells anchored in place within a tissue.
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retinoblastoma
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a cancer of the retina, usually hereditary
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carcinogens
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an environmental agent or substance such as ultraviolet radiation that can trigger cancer
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sarcoma
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cancer of connective tissues such as muscle and bone
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lymphomas
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cancer of lymphoid tissues in organs such lymph nodes.
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carcinomas
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cancer of the epithelium including skin cells and epithelial linings of internal organs
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leukemias
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cancers of the white blood cells that cause the runaway multiplication of abnormal cells and the destruction of bone marrow
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gliomas
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cancer of the glial cells of the brain
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tumor markers
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a substance that is produced by a specific type of cancer cell or by normal cells in response to cancer
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medical imaging
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any of several diagnostic methods including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), x-ray, ultra sound and cat scanning.
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radioactive tracers
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cancer treatment that relies on radiation from radioisotopes to damage or destroy cancer cells.
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a DNA probe
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very short stretch of DNA designed to basepair with part of a gene being studied and labeled with an isotope to distinguish it from DNA in the sample being investigated.
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biopsy
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diagnostic procedure in which a small piece of tissue is removed from the body through a hollow needle or exploratory surgery and then examined for signs of a particular disease
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chemotherapy
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the use of therapeutic drugs to kill cancer cells
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radiation therapy
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cancer treatment that relies on radiation from radioisotopes to damage or destroy cancer cells.
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