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148 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
what makes us human?
*growth and development
*homeostasis
*reproduction
*reacts to stimuli
*constantly evolving
*movement
chemistry
atoms and molecules; carbs, proteins, fats, DNA
cellular
smallest units of life
tissues
groups of similar cell types
ex: nervous, muscular, connective, epithelial
organs
made up of all tissue types working together to carry out a specific function
organ systems
multiple organs working together to perform a specific function within the body
organism
all organ systems working together
homeostasis
ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment in the body
(nervous/endocrine systems aid in this process)
feed back loops
keep the body informed of any changes and also attempt to correct the situation to restore homeostasis
factors in feedback loop
*normal controlled condition
*receptor (monitors)
*control center
*effector (restore normal cond.)
negative feed back loop
immediate reversal!
ex: blood pressure/heart rate
positive feed back loop
intensification!
ex: child birth
science
way of knowing about the natural world; objective; conclusions may be changed or modified as our understanding and technology increase; studied using scientific method
scientific method
1. observation
2. hypothesis (testable)
3. experiment
4. conclusion (support/reject hypothesis)
5. scientific theory
ulcers
H. pylori is the cause of gastritis and ulcers
ex: swallowed by humans
experimental variable
variable that is purposely changed or manipulated
test group
group of subjects that are exposed to the experimental variable
control group
group of subjects that are not exposed to the experimental variable, but receive a placebo instead
scientific journals
best source of scientific information
(.edu, .gov, .org)
technology
application of scientific knowledge to human interests
matter
is anything that has weight and takes up space
elements
are the basic building blocks of matter that cannot be broken down by chemical means
atoms
are the smallest units of an element that retain the element’s physical and chemical properties. These bond together to form molecules
neutrons
have a neutral charge
protons
are positively charged
nucleus
made up of neutrons and protons
electrons
are negatively charged and orbit around the nucleus
octet rule
*an atom can hold 2 electrons in its inner most shell, 8 in the second and 18 in the 3 third
*however, if an atom has 8 electrons in the second or third shell, it is stable and will not react with another atom
*if an atom has not satisfied this octet rule, it will react with other atoms to form molecules or compounds
molecules
are made of atoms that are bonded together
compounds
are also made of atoms that are bonded together
ionic bonds
*atoms in this type of bond donate or receive electrons
*results in a stable outer shell for both atoms
*forms charged particles (ions)
*will dissociate in water
covalent bonds
*atoms in this type of bond share electrons
*results in a stable outer shell
*stronger than ionic bonds; will not dissociate in water
hydrogen bonds
*weaker than ionic or covalent bonds
*can form between hydrogen and oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen and hydrogen and fluorine
*can be found within molecules or in between molecules
*not strong enough to form a molecule, but are very important for shaping proteins and DNA
*also responsible for some unique properties of water
unique properties of water
*Water is a polar molecule
*high heat capacity (liquid water does not change temperature quickly)
*molecules of water cling together
*water is a great solvent
*liquid at room temperature
*frozen water is less dense than liquid water
hydrogen bonds
form between a hydrogen atom in one molecule of water and an oxygen atom in another molecule of water; hydrogen=polar molecule
polar molecule
electrons shared unequally; has a charge
hydrophilic
molecules that will mix with water
ex: sugars, ions
hydrophobic
molecules that will not mix with water
ex: oils, gases, fats
acids
are substances that dissociate and release hydrogen ions (H+)
bases
are substances that take up hydrogen atoms or release hydroxide ions (OH-)
pH scale
closer to 0=more acidic
closer to 14=more basic (alkaline)
7=neutral
4 major macromolecules
1. carbohydrates
2. lipids
3. proteins
4. nucleic acids
carbohydrates
*made of subunits called monosaccharides
*made of C, H and O (in a 1:2:1 ratio)
*function as short and long-term energy storage
*found as simple and complex forms
monosaccharide
1 carbon ring (glucose)
disaccharide
2 carbon rings (maltose)
polysaccharide
many carbon chains
glycogen
storage form in animals
starch
storage form in plants
dehydration synthesis reaction
the removal of water from two smaller molecules in order to link them together to form one larger molecule
*links together amino acids
hydrolysis reaction
the addition of water to a large molecule to break it down into smaller subunits
lipids
*composed of mostly C and H in a 1:2 ratio
*hydrophobic molecules
ex: fats, oils, waxes
*purpose: used as energy molecules, found in cell membranes and can also be hormones
*examples include: saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids
saturated fats
no double bond between carbons; solid at room temp.; from animals (meat, cheese, etc); increases blood cholesterol levels (LDL-bad) and heart disease
unsaturated fats
contain double bonds between carbons; liquid at room temp.; from plants (soy bean, olive oil, etc); lowers blood cholesterol and increases (HDL-good) cholesterol
fatty acids
*composed of hydrocarbon chains
*may be 4 to 36 carbons long
*the hydrocarbon chain is referred to as the hydrocarbon tail
*the other end contains the carboxyl group
triglycerides
*a three-carbon molecule called glycerol is linked to three fatty acids
*found in adipose tissue
*long-term energy source and insulation
phospholipids
*composed of glycerol, 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group
*the phosphate containing head is hydrophilic
*the fatty acid tails are hydrophobic
>>importance: arrange in two layers to form the cell membrane
(also known as the phospholipid bilayer)
steroids
*three 6-carbon rings and one 5-carbon ring
*made from a cholesterol base
*examples are the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone
proteins
*important for many reasons including:
-contraction
-hormones
-structure
-protection
-transport
-enzymes
enzymes
speed up chemical reactions; unaltered by the reaction
amino acid
subunit of protein; each has a central carbon
structure of amino acid
attached to central carbon:
-an amino group
-a carboxyl acid group
-a hydrogen
-R-group
peptide bonds
form between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another
primary protein folding
the linear order of amino acids
(determined by DNA; "pearl necklace")
secondary protein folding
folding into pleated sheets and helices
(due to hydrogen bonds)
tertiary protein folding
folding into an even more complex 3-D shape
(due to polar vs. non polar interactions)
quaternary protein folding
two or more tertiary structures
DNA mutations
alter protein shape and function causing various diseases and cancer
nucleic acids
*examples are DNA and RNA
*subunit is a nucleotide
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid is inherited and directs protein synthesis
*the two nucleotide chains are held together by hydrogen bonds that form between complementary base pairs
-A pairs with T
-G pairs with C
*the sugar-phosphate backbone forms the sides of the ladder
*the nitrogenous bases form the rungs of the ladder
RNA
ribonucleic acid is a temporary helper molecule that assist with protein synthesis
*composed of a single strand of nucleotides
*contains the sugar: ribose
*the nitrogenous bases are:
-Adenine (A)
-Guanine (G)
-Cytosine (C)
-Uracil (U)
nucleotide
3 components
1. sugar
2. phosphate
3. nitrogenous base
ATP
*high energy molecule
*used as currency within the cell to do work
*made from glucose, lipids or proteins
plasma membrane
*it is a phospholipid bilayer
*it contains cholesterol for support
*it contains glycoproteins and glycolipids
*selectively permeable
selectively permeable
the membrane allows some things in while keeping other substances out
(gases go through the easiest!)
aquaporn
protein channel that allows for the passage of water
diffusion
going from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
osmosis
diffusion of water
concentration
amount of one substance (solute) dissolved in a given volume of another substance (solvent)
passive diffusion
going from high concentration to low concentration (no energy, no transport molecule)
facilitated diffusion
going from high concentration to low concentration (no energy, but requires a transport molecule)
ex: amino acids, molecules w. charge, sugars
active transport
requires energy (ATP) going from low concentration to high concentration (up a concentration gradient)
endocytosis
transports molecules or cells into the cell via invagination of the cell membrane to form a vesicle
exocytosis
transports molecules outside of the cell via the fusion of a vesicle with the cell membrane
nucleus
*contains DNA
*surrounded by a nuclear envelope
*double membrane with nuclear pores
*nucleolus- rRNA is produced
cytoplasm
made up of the:
*cytosol- fluid component
*organelles- various structures suspended within the cytosol
endoplasmic reticulum
*continuous with the nuclear envelope
*rough ER- studded with ribosomes that synthesize proteins
*smooth ER- lipid and carbohydrate synthesis
golgi apparatus
*receives substances from the ER via transport vesicles
*modifies and repackages for shipping
lysosomes
*vesicles containing digestive enzymes
*break down cellular wastes and help to dispose of ingested particles
mitochondria
*have a double membrane
*manufacture ATP
*contain their own DNA
cytoskeleton
proteins that serve to:
*provide a framework for the cell
*move substances with in the cell
*stabilize organelles
microvilli
fingerlike projections
cilia
fine hair-like extensions
flagella
single long tail-like structure
chromosomes
humans have 46 chromosomes that are in 23 pairs within a cell’s nucleus
homologous chromosomes
pairs of chromosomes
autosomes
the 22 pairs of chromosomes that control traits that do not relate to gender of an individual
sex chromosomes
the 1 pair of chromosomes that contain the genes that do control gender
diploid
somatic cells (body cells) have 46 (2N) chromosomes and are called this
haploid
sex cells have only 23 (1N) chromosomes and are called this
cell cycle
two phases:
1. interphase
2. cell division (mitosis/cytokinesis)
interphase
*G1 stage – cell doubles its organelles; cell grows in size
*S stage – DNA replication occurs
*G2 stage – proteins needed for division are synthesized
sister chromatids
once a chromosome duplicates, it is composed of two of these
centromere
the sister chromatids are held together at a region called the
chromatin
uncondensed chromosomes are referred to as
centrosome
the microtubule organizing center of the cell
aster
an array of microtubules at the poles (ends of the cell)
centrioles
short cylinders of microtubules that assist in the formation of spindle fibers
mitosis
*a diploid cell makes and divides an exact copy of its nucleus
*used in cell growth and cell repair
*occurs in somatic cells
4 phases:
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
prophase
*chromosomes condense and become visible
*nuclear envelope fragments
*nucleolus disappears
*centrosomes move to opposite poles
*spindle fibers appear and attach to the centromere
metaphase
*chromosomes line up at the middle of the cell (equator)
*fully formed spindle
anaphase
*sister chromatids separate at the centromeres and move towards opposite poles
telophase/cytokinesis
*chromosomes arrive at the poles
*chromosomes become indistinct chromatin again
*nucleoli reappear
*spindle disappears
*nuclear envelope reassembles
*two daughter cells are formed by a ring of actin filaments (cleavage furrow)furrow)
meiosis
*two nuclear divisions occur to make 4 haploid cells
*used to make gametes (egg and sperm)
*occurs in germ-line cells
*has 8 phases (4 in each meiosis I & II)
meiosis I
*prophase I
-homologous chromosomes pair (synapsis) and crossing-over occurs in which there is exchange of genetic information
*metaphase I
-homologous pairs lined at the equator
*anaphase I
-homologous chromosomes separate and move towards opposite poles
*telophase I
-2 daughter cells result each with 23 duplicated chromosomes
crossing over
is the exchange of genetic information between non-sister chromatids during synapsis
(this occurs during prophase I of meiosis and increases genetic variation)
meiosis II
*prophase II
-chromosomes condense again
*metaphase II
-chromosomes align at the equator
*anaphase II
-sister chromatids separate to opposite poles
*telophase II
-4 daughter cells result each with 23 unduplicated chromosomes
independent alignment
occurs in metaphase of meiosis II and makes for the non-identical daughter cells
nondisjunction
failure of homologous or sister chromatids to separate during meiosis I or meiosis II.
monosomy
cell has only 1 copy of a chromosome
ex: turner syndrome (only one X chromosome)
trisomy
cell has 3 copies of a chromosome
ex: down syndrome (3 copies of chromosome 21)
autosomal nondisjunction
failure of the autosomes to separate
down syndrome
trisomy-21; flat face; eye lid folds; mentally retardation; enlarged tongue
cri du chat
deletion of a portion of chromosome-5; small head; cat-like cry; severe mental retardation; heart defect
turner syndrome (X)
short stature, broad shouldered with folds of skin on the neck, underdeveloped sex organs, no breasts
klinefelter syndrome (XXY)
may have underdeveloped sex organs, breast development, large hands and long arms and legs
poly-X female
XXX tends to be tall and thin but not usually retarded
XXXX are severely retarded
jacobs syndrome (XYY)
tall, persistent acne, speech and reading problems
chorionic villi sampling
suction tube is used to remove cells from chorion, where the placenta will develop
amniocentesis
long needle is used to withdraw amniotic fluid containing fetal cell
locus
gene at the same location on two different chromosomes
alleles
alternate form of gene
ex: black hair vs. red hair
ex: EE
homozygous dominant
ex: Ee
heterozygous
ex: ee
homozygous recessive
genotype vs. phenotype
Ee vs. unattached earlobes
autosomal recessive disorder
individuals must be homozygous recessive to have the disorder
tay sachs disease
*allele on chromosome 15
*T codes for a functional enzyme that breaks down glycolipids in lysosomes
*t codes for a nonfunctional enzyme
*glycolipid accumulates and impairs the functioning of the nervous system
(both parents must be carriers!)
autosomal dominant disorder
individuals that are homozygous dominant and heterozygous will have the disorder
huntington disease
*allele on chromosome 4
*h codes for a functional Huntington protein
*H codes for a nonfunctional protein
*neurodegenerative disease; muscle spasms, personality changes, dementia, etc.
*age of onset-symptoms don't show up until middle age
(parent must be HH or Hh)
multifactorial traits
aparticular trait is determined by two or more sets of alleles and environmental influences
*results in a continuous variation of phenotypes
ex: height, skin color
multiple allele inheritance
only having two of the possible alleles
ex: ABO blood system
codominance
occurs when the alleles are equally expressed in a heterozygote
ex: type AB blood
incomplete dominance
occurs when the heterozygote is intermediate between the 2 homozygotes
ex: red flower+white flower=pink
sex linked inheritance
*traits are controlled by genes on the sex chromosomes
*X-linked inheritance: the allele is carried on the X chromosome
*Y-linked inheritance: the allele is carried on the Y chromosome
*most sex-linked traits are X-linked
X-linked disorders
*more often found in males than females because recessive alleles are always expressed in males
*most X-linked disorders are recessive
color blindness
most often characterized by red-green color blindness
muscular dystrophy
characterized by wasting of muscles and death by age 20
hemophilia
characterized by the absence of particular clotting factors that causes blood to clot very slowly or not at all